Editing Ferdinand Marcos (section)

==Second term (1969–1972)==
{{Main|Second term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos}}
{{See also|1969 Philippine presidential election}}
[[File:Ferdinand Marcos 1969 Inaugural.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand Marcos takes the Oath of Office for a second term before [[Chief Justice of the Philippines|Chief Justice]] [[Roberto Concepcion]] on December 30, 1969.]]
[[File:0238jfBaliuag Bulacan Landmark Interior Museum and Libraryfvf 08.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Marcos and Imelda with the Mayors of [[Baliwag]] in 1973]]

Marcos was reelected on November 11, 1969, in a landslide. He was the only Filipino president to win a second full term.<ref>{{cite book|last=Timberman|first=David G.|title=A changeless land: continuity and change in Philippine politics|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=1991|page=63|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=NkBO2RhI4NUC|page=63}}|isbn=9789813035867}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Boudreau, Vincent|title=Resisting dictatorship: repression and protest in Southeast Asia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-83989-1|page=7|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=ZpoCNHhUe7QC|page=7}}}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Hedman, Eva-Lotta E.|title=In the name of civil society: from free election movements to people power in the Philippines|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8248-2921-6|page=70|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=CIYn9_ZMMesC|page=70}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=McCoy, Alfred W.|title=Policing America's empire: the United States, the Philippines, and the rise of the surveillance state|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-299-23414-0|page=52|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=QYj6WUGsRuEC|page=52}}}}</ref> His running mate, incumbent Vice President [[Fernando Lopez]] was also elected to a third full term as [[Vice President of the Philippines]].

Marcos's second term was characterized by social unrest, beginning with the balance of payments crisis.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10"/> Opposition groups began to form, with "moderate" groups calling for political reform and "radical" groups espousing radical-left ideology.<ref name="Passionate">Talitha Espiritu Passionate Revolutions: The Media and the Rise and Fall of the Marcos Regime Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2017.</ref><ref name="Daroy1988"/><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest"/>

Marcos responded with military force. The most notable was the response to protests during the first three months of 1970 – a period known as the [[First Quarter Storm]].<ref name="Aureus 1985"/><ref name="RebellionRepressionPh">{{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=Richard John |url=https://archive.org/details/rebellionrepress0000kess |title=Rebellion and repression in the Philippines |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300044065 |location=New Haven |oclc=19266663 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />

Another major event was the [[Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971]]. In May 1972, a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote with the Marcoses that implicated Imelda Marcos.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=133}}<ref name="BantayogQuintero"/>

On August 21, 1971, a [[Plaza Miranda bombing|fatal bombing]] occurred at a political campaign rally of the opposition Liberal Party at Plaza Miranda in Quiapo, Manila. Marcos blamed the Communist Party of the Philippines. He issued Proclamation No. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of ''[[habeas corpus]]''.<ref name="Simafrania2006" /> Oppositionists were accused as "radicals" and were arrested. This response ignored any distinction between moderates and radicals, already blurred since the First Quarter storm. This brought about a massive expansion of the underground socialist resistance, leading many moderate oppositionists to join the radicals.<ref name="Rodis" /><ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> In 1972 a series of bombings in Metro Manila occurred. Marcos again blamed the communists, although the only suspects caught were linked to the Philippine Constabulary.<ref name="Brillantes1987">{{Cite book |last=Brillantes |first=Alex B. Jr. |title=Dictatorship & martial law : Philippine authoritarianism in 1972 |date=1987 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Diliman]] [[UP National College of Public Administration and Governance|School of Public Administration]] |isbn=978-9718567012 |location=Quezon City, Philippines}}</ref><ref name="Overholt">{{Cite journal |last=Overholt |first=William H. |title=The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/26/11/1137/22236/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Ferdinand-Marcos?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Asian Survey |year=1986 |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=1137–1163 |doi=10.2307/2644313 |jstor=2644313 |issn=0004-4687 |access-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-date=October 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015122513/https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/26/11/1137/22236/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Ferdinand-Marcos?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live}}</ref>

Marcos's second term effectively ended less than two years and nine months later, when Marcos established [[martial law]].<ref name="govPhDeclarationMartialLaw" />

===Social unrest after the balance of payments crisis===
Marcos's spending during the campaign triggered growing public unrest,<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain">{{cite book |last1=Robles |first1=Raissa |url=https://www.facebook.com/MarcosMartialLawNeverAgain/ |title=Marcos Martial Law: Never Again |date=2016 |publisher=Filipinos for a Better Philippines, Inc. |isbn=978-621-95443-1-3 |location=[[Quezon City]] |access-date=July 19, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209051128/https://www.facebook.com/MarcosMartialLawNeverAgain/ |archive-date=February 9, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and led opposition figures such as Senator [[Lorenzo Tañada]], Senator [[Jovito Salonga]], and Senator [[Jose W. Diokno]] to accuse Marcos of wanting to stay in power beyond the two term constitutional limit.<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

Opposition groups quickly grew in the campuses.<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="Daroy1988" />

===="Moderate" and "radical" opposition====
Media reports classified the various civil society groups opposing Marcos into either "moderates" or "radicals".<ref name="Daroy1988">{{Cite book |title=Dictatorship and revolution : roots of people's power |last=Daroy |first=Petronilo Bn. |date=1988 |publisher=Conspectus |isbn=978-9919108014 |editor-last=Javate -de Dios |editor-first=Aurora |edition= 1st |location=Metro Manila |chapter=On the Eve of Dictatorship and Revolution |oclc=19609244 |editor-last2=Daroy |editor-first2=Petronilo Bn. |editor-last3=Kalaw-Tirol |editor-first3=Lorna}}</ref> The moderates included church groups, civil libertarians, and nationalist politicians who wanted political reforms.<ref name="Passionate" /> Radicals included labor and student groups who wanted more systemic political reforms.<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest">{{Cite web |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/edsa/the-ph-protest-appendix/ |title=A History of the Philippine Political Protest |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705180022/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/edsa/the-ph-protest-appendix/ |archive-date=July 5, 2017 |url-status=dead |access-date=December 10, 2018}}</ref>

=====Moderates=====
{{See also|Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties}}

Statesmen and politicians opposed to the increasingly authoritarian administration mostly focused their efforts on political efforts.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /> Their concerns usually included election reform, calls for a non-partisan constitutional convention, and a call for Marcos to comply with the Constitutional term limit.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />

Proponents included the National Union of Students in the Philippines,<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> the National Students League (NSL),<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> and later the [[Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties]] (MCCCL), led by Senator [[Jose W. Diokno]].<ref name="Daroy1988" />

MCCCL rallies were remembered for their diversity, attracting moderate and radical camps; and for their scale, attended by as many as 50,000 people.<ref name="Daroy1988" />

=====Radicals=====
{{See also|National Democracy Movement (Philippines)}}

The other broad category of opposition groups were those who wanted more systemic political reforms, usually as part of the [[National Democracy Movement (Philippines)|National Democracy movement]].<ref name="Passionate" /><ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" /> The Marcos administration included moderate groups under the radical umbrtella.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aquino |first=Ninoy |title=Testament from a Prison Cell |publisher=Philippine Journal, Incorporated |year=1989 |isbn=978-0962169502 |location=Los Angeles}}</ref>

Groups considered radical by the media included:<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />
* [[Kabataang Makabayan]] (KM)
* [[Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan]] (SDK)
* Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP)
* Movement for Democratic Philippines (MDP)
* Student Power Assembly of the Philippines (SPAP)
* [[Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataang Pilipino]] (MPKP)

====Radicalization====
{{Main|Communist Party of the Philippines}}

When Marcos became president, ine policy and politics functioned under a postwar geopolitical framework.<ref name="WorldBank">{{cite web |url=http://www.cadtm.org/The-World-Bank-and-the-Philippines |title=The World Bank and the Philippines |last=Toussaint |first=Eric |date=October 7, 2014 |website=www.cadtm.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109191929/http://www.cadtm.org/The-World-Bank-and-the-Philippines |archive-date=November 9, 2009 |url-status=live |access-date=June 14, 2018}}</ref> The Philippines was caught up in the [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] scare perpetuated by the US during the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sen |first=Rabindra |date=June 2005 |journal=Jadavpur Journal of International Relations |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=85–92 |doi=10.1177/0973598405110005 |issn=0973-5984|title=Philippines – U.S. Special Relationship: Cold War and Beyond|s2cid=157525312}}</ref> Marcos and the AFP claimed that the Communist Party of the Philippines was a threat, even though it was still a small organization.<ref name="RebellionRepressionPh" />{{rp|page=43}}<ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" /> Richard J. Kessler claimed that Marcos "mythologized the group, investing it with a revolutionary aura that only attracted more supporters".

The unrest of 1969 to 1970, and the violent reaction to the "First Quarter Storm" protests were watershed events in which Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against Marcos. Many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that more radical social change was required.<ref name="Rodis">{{Cite news |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm |title=Remembering the First Quarter Storm |last=Rodis |first=Rodel |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=January 27, 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131959/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm/ |archive-date=January 31, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178">{{Cite book|title=Days of Disquiet, Nights of Rage: The First Quarter Storm & Related Events|last=Lacaba|first=Jose F.|publisher=Salinlahi Pub. House|year=1982|location=Manila|pages=11–45, 157–178}}</ref>

Other events that radicalized moderates included the February 1971 [[Diliman Commune]]; the August 1971 suspension of the writ of ''[[habeas corpus]]'' in the wake of the [[Plaza Miranda]] [[Plaza Miranda bombing|bombing]]; the September 1972 [[Proclamation No. 1081|declaration of martial law]]; the 1980 [[murder of Macli-ing Dulag]];<ref name="Aureus 1985">{{Cite book |title=The Philippine Press Under Siege II |year=1985 |editor-last=Aureus |editor-first=Leonor J.}}</ref> and the August 1983 [[assassination of Ninoy Aquino]].<ref name="GazetteHistoryProtest" />

By 1970, campus study sessions on [[Marxism–Leninism]] had become common, and many students joined organizations associated with the National Democracy Movement (ND), such as the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP) and the [[Kabataang Makabayan]] (KM, lit. ''Patriotic Youth'') founded by [[Jose Maria Sison]];<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|title=Finishing the Unfinished Revolution|last=Torrevillas-Suarez|first=Domini|date=March 29, 1970|work=Philippine Panorama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.up.edu.ph/signposts-in-the-history-of-activism-in-the-university-of-the-philippines/|title=Signposts in the History of Activism in the University of the Philippines|last=Guillermo|first=Ramon|date=February 6, 2013|website=[[University of the Philippines]]|access-date=November 19, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127024018/http://www.up.edu.ph/signposts-in-the-history-of-activism-in-the-university-of-the-philippines/|archive-date=November 27, 2016}}</ref> the [[Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan]] (SDK) was founded by a group of young writers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.europe-solidaire.org/spip.php?article15837 |title=Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan: some basic information |website=Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières |access-date=April 7, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731131001/http://www.europe-solidaire.org/spip.php?article15837 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The line between leftist activists and communists became blurred, as a significant number of radicalized activists joined the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]]. Radicalized activists from the cities began to be more extensively deployed in rural areas where some became guerillas.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 14, 2011|title=The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks|url=https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/202-the-communist-insurgency-in-the-philippines-tactics-and-talks.pdf|website=International Crisis Group|access-date=September 19, 2021|archive-date=September 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919162932/https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/202-the-communist-insurgency-in-the-philippines-tactics-and-talks.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Santos|first1=Soliman M. Jr.|title=Primed and Purposeful: Armed Groups and Human Security Efforts in the Philippines|last2=Santos|first2=Paz Verdades M.|last3=Dinampo|first3=Octavio A.|last4=Kraft|first4=Herman Joseph S.|last5=Paredes|first5=Artha Kira R.|last6=Quilop|first6=Raymund Jose G.|publisher=Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies|year=2010|isbn=978-2-940415-29-8|editor-last=Rodriguez|editor-first=Diana|location=Geneva|pages=3, 17–35}}</ref>

===First Quarter Storm===
{{Main|First Quarter Storm}}

By the time Marcos gave his State of the Nation Address on January 26, 1970, [[Demonstration (people)|demonstrations]], [[protest]]s, and marches had broken out. Moderate and radical student groups  became the protests' driving force, which lasted until the end of the university semester in March 1970, and came to be known as the "[[First Quarter Storm]]".<ref name="Manila, My Manila">{{cite book|title=Manila, My Manila|publisher=Vera-Reyes, Inc.|year=1990|author=Joaquin, Nick}}</ref><ref name="marcosMartialLawNeverAgain" />

During Marcos's address, the moderate National Union of Students of the Philippines organized a protest in front of Congress and invited student groups to join them. Some protesting students harangued Marcos as he and Imelda left the Congress building, throwing a coffin, a stuffed alligator, and stones at them.<ref name="InquirerRememberingFQS">{{Cite news |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm |title=Remembering the First Quarter Storm |last=Rodis |first=Rodel |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-date=January 31, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131959/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/118130/remembering-the-first-quarter-storm/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The next major protest took place on January 30 in front of the presidential palace.<ref name="Newsbreak">{{Cite news |url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/51292-timeline-first-quarter-storm |title=Timeline: First Quarter Storm |last=Santos |first=Reynaldo Jr. |date=February 27, 2014 |work=Rappler |access-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127110629/https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/51292-timeline-first-quarter-storm |url-status=live}}</ref> Activists rammed through the gate with a fire truck and charged the Palace grounds tossing rocks, pillboxes, and [[Molotov cocktails]]. At least two activists were confirmed dead and several were injured by the police.

Five more major protests took place around Manila before March 17, 1970 – what some media accounts later branded the "7 deadly protests of the First Quarter Storm".<ref name="7DeadlyProtests">{{Cite news |last=Dacanay |first=Barbara Mae Naredo |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/ancx/culture/spotlight/02/24/20/the-7-deadly-protests-of-the-first-quarter-storm |title=The 7 deadly protests of the First Quarter Storm |date=February 24, 2020 |work=ABS CBN News and Public Affairs |access-date=February 28, 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228094412/https://news.abs-cbn.com/ancx/culture/spotlight/02/24/20/the-7-deadly-protests-of-the-first-quarter-storm |archive-date=February 28, 2020}}</ref> This included rallies on February 12; a February 18 rally that proceeded to the US Embassy where they set fire to the lobby;<ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178" /> a "Second People's Congress" demonstration on February 26; a "People's March" on March 3; and the Second "People's March" on March 17.<ref name="7DeadlyProtests" />

The protests ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 people.<ref name="ndfp.org">{{cite web|date=November 29, 2014|title=Historic role and contributions of Kabataang Makabayan » NDFP|url=http://www.ndfp.org/historic-role-and-contributions-of-kabataang-makabayan/|access-date=December 6, 2016|archive-date=August 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802164002/http://www.ndfp.org/historic-role-and-contributions-of-kabataang-makabayan/|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Partisan source|date=June 2020}} Students had declared a week-long boycott of classes and instead met to organize rallies.<ref name="Lacaba 1982 11–45, 157–178" />

Violent dispersals of protests radicalized Filipino students against the Marcos administration.<ref name="Rodis" />{{better source needed|date=June 2020}}

===Constitutional Convention of 1971===
{{Main|Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971}}

Civil society groups and opposition leaders began campaigning in 1967 to initiate a [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]].<ref name="DeanAndyBautista20141011">{{Cite news |url=https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2014/10/11/1378790/chartering-change-ii |title=Chartering change (II) |last=Bautista |first=Andy |date=October 11, 2014 |work=The Philippine Star |access-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725122825/https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2014/10/11/1378790/chartering-change-ii |url-status=live}}</ref> On March 16 that year, the Philippine Congress made itself into a Constituent Assembly and passed Resolution No. 2, which called for a Constitutional Convention.<ref name="ImbongvFerrer">{{Cite web |url=http://www.chanrobles.com/scdecisions/jurisprudence1970/sep1970/gr_32432_1970.php |title=G.R. No. L-32432 – Manuel B. Imbong vs. Jaime Ferrer |author=R.E. Diaz |website=www.chanrobles.com |access-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725122808/http://www.chanrobles.com/scdecisions/jurisprudence1970/sep1970/gr_32432_1970.php |url-status=live}}</ref>

Marcos was surprised by his critics by endorsing the move. Historians later noted that he was hoping the convention would allow presidents to serve for more than two terms.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />

A special election was held on November 10, 1970, to elect the convention delegates.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=130}} The convention was convened on June 1, 1971, at [[Quezon City Hall]].<ref name="KatePedroso&MinervaGeneralao20160921">{{Cite news |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/817651/september-1972-recalling-the-last-days-and-hours-of-democracy |title=September 1972: Recalling the last days and hours of democracy |last1=Pedroso |first1=Kate |date=September 21, 2016 |access-date=October 20, 2018 |last2=Generalao |first2=Minerva |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |archive-date=July 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173917/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/817651/september-1972-recalling-the-last-days-and-hours-of-democracy |url-status=live}}</ref> A total of 320 delegates were elected. The most prominent were former senators [[Raul Manglapus]] and [[Roseller T. Lim]]. Other delegates later became influential political figures, including [[Hilario Davide Jr.]], [[Marcelo Fernan]], [[Sotero Laurel]], [[Aquilino Pimentel Jr.]], [[Teofisto Guingona Jr.]], [[Raul Roco]], [[Edgardo Angara]], [[Richard Gordon (politician)|Richard Gordon]], [[Margarito Teves]], and Federico Dela Plana.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" /><ref name="delegates">{{cite book|last1=De Leon|first1=Hector S.|last2=Lugue|first2=Emilio Jr. E.|title=Textbook on the new Philippine Constitution|date=1984|publisher=Rex Book Store}}</ref>

By 1972, the convention had become bogged down by politicking and delays. Its credibility fell further in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses – First Lady Imelda Marcos became implicated in the alleged scheme.<ref name="Kasaysayan9ch10" />{{rp|page=133}}<ref name="BantayogQuintero">{{Cite news |url=http://www.bantayog.org/quintero-eduardo-t/ |title=Quintero, Eduardo T. – Bantayog ng mga Bayani |date=May 16, 2016 |work=Bantayog ng mga Bayani |access-date=June 2, 2018 |archive-date=June 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621000518/http://www.bantayog.org/quintero-eduardo-t/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The investigation was shelved when Marcos [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|declared martial law]] in September 1972, and had 11 opposition delegates arrested. The remaining opposition delegates were forced to go either into exile or hiding. Within two months, an entirely new draft of the constitution was created by a special committee.<ref name="PCIJ20060501">{{Cite news |url=http://pcij.org/stories/in-1971-and-2006-new-charters-designed-to-keep-embattled-presidents-in-power/ |title=In 1971 and 2006, new Charters designed to keep embattled presidents in power |date=May 1, 2006 |work=Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism Website |access-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725122900/http://pcij.org/stories/in-1971-and-2006-new-charters-designed-to-keep-embattled-presidents-in-power/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[1973 Philippine constitutional plebiscite|1973 constitutional plebiscite]] was called to ratify the new constitution, but the validity of the ratification was brought to question because Marcos replaced secret ballot voting with a system of [[wikt:viva voce|viva voce]] voting by "citizen's assemblies".<ref name="Graham&Saunders2002">{{Cite book |title=Asia-Pacific constitutional systems |author=Graham Hassall |last2=Saunders |first2=Cheryl |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511549960 |location=Cambridge |oclc=715166703}}</ref>{{rp|page=213}} The ratification of the constitution was challenged in the [[Ratification Cases]].<ref name="Bernas2003">Bernas, Joaquin (2003). ''The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines: a Commentary''. Rex Book Store, Manila</ref><ref name="Cruz2000">Cruz, Isagani A. (2000). ''Res Gestae: A Brief History of the Supreme Court''. Rex Book Store, Manila</ref>

===CPP New People's Army===
On December 29, 1970, [[Philippine Military Academy]] instructor Lt. Victor Corpuz led [[New People's Army]] rebels in a raid on the PMA armory, capturing rifles, machine guns, grenade launchers, a bazooka and thousands of rounds of ammunition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/se-asia/CH30Ae02.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130117084811/http://www.atimes.com/se-asia/CH30Ae02.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=January 17, 2013|title=Victor Corpus and Jose Almonte: The righteous spies|website=[[Asia Times]]}}</ref> In 1972, China, which was then actively supporting and arming communist insurgencies in Asia as part of [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[People's war#List of People's Wars|People's War Doctrine]], transported 1,200 M-14 and AK-47 rifles aboard the [[MV Karagatan incident|MV ''Karagatan'']] for the NPA to aid its campaign to defeat the government.<ref>{{cite news|work=Rappler|url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/60279-ak47-communist-rebels|title=AK-47: NPA rebels' weapon of choice|access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=September 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919233513/http://www.rappler.com/nation/60279-ak47-communist-rebels|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nNlJoXfAH3c |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/nNlJoXfAH3c| archive-date=December 11, 2021 |url-status=live|title=MV Karagatan, The Ship of the Chinese Communist |work =I-Witness |agency=GMA 7 |publisher=YouTube|date=November 18, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=The Philippine Star|url=http://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2012/07/30/832892/untold-story-karagatan-i-witness|title=Untold story of Karagatan in I-Witness |access-date=September 20, 2016|archive-date=September 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928020948/http://www.philstar.com/entertainment/2012/07/30/832892/untold-story-karagatan-i-witness|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Rumored coup d'état and assassination plot===
A report by the [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|US Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] said that shortly after the presidential election, a group composed mostly of retired colonels and generals organized a revolutionary junta with the aim of discrediting and killing Marcos. The group was headed by Eleuterio Adevoso, a Liberal Party official. A document given to the committee by a Philippine government official alleged that Vice President Fernando Lopez and Sergio, Osmena Jr. were key figures in the plot.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/02/18/archives/us-killer-reported-hired-in-a-plot-against-marcos-details-reported.html|title=U.S. Killer Reported Hired In a Plot Against Marcos|last=Finney|first=John W.|date=February 18, 1973|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 7, 2017|archive-date=September 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919052555/http://www.nytimes.com/1973/02/18/archives/us-killer-reported-hired-in-a-plot-against-marcos-details-reported.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

As early as December 1969 in a message from the US Ambassador to the US Assistant Secretary of State, the ambassador said that most of the talk about revolution and even assassination had been coming from the defeated opposition, of which Adevoso was a leading activist. He also said that his information on the assassination plans was 'hard' (well-sourced) and he wanted it to reach President Marcos.<ref>{{cite book|title=Foreign relations of the United States, 1969–1976, V. 20: Southeast Asia|publisher=Government Printing Office|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=F5r7jrDoHM4C|page=429}}|isbn=9780160876387|access-date=October 25, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163429/https://books.google.com/books?id=F5r7jrDoHM4C&q=Eleuterio+Adevoso+marcos&pg=PA429#v=snippet&q=Eleuterio%20Adevoso%20marcos&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=August 2020}}<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v20/d202|title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XX, Southeast Asia, 1969–1972 – Office of the Historian|website=history.state.gov|access-date=December 6, 2016|archive-date=December 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220120950/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v20/d202|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=May 2022}}

===Plaza Miranda bombing===
{{Excerpt|Plaza Miranda bombing}}
Unnamed former Communist Party officials alleged that "the Communist party leadership planned – and three operatives carried out – the [[Plaza Miranda bombing|Plaza Miranda attack]] in an attempt to provoke government repression and push the country towards revolution". Communist leader [[Jose Maria Sison]] had calculated that Marcos could be provoked into cracking down on his opponents, thereby driving political activists into the underground, the anonymous former officials said. Recruits were urgently needed, they said, to make use of a large influx of weapons and financial aid that China had agreed to provide."<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news|title=Ex-Communists Party Behind Manila Bombing|url=https://washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/08/04/ex-communists-party-behind-manila-bombing/b987c165-4f26-4609-aeb5-cd05134c0cec/|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=August 4, 1989|access-date=April 15, 2020|archive-date=July 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731050505/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/08/04/ex-communists-party-behind-manila-bombing/b987c165-4f26-4609-aeb5-cd05134c0cec/|url-status=live}}</ref> Sison denied these claims.<ref>{{cite web |last=Distor |first=Emere |title=The Left and Democratisation in the Philippines |url=http://cpcabrisbane.org/Kasama/2003/V17n2/Quimpo.htm |access-date=October 27, 2007 |archive-date=October 31, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031051141/http://cpcabrisbane.org/Kasama/2003/V17n2/Quimpo.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The CPP never offered official confirmation of its culpability. Marcos and his allies claimed that Benigno Aquino Jr. was part of the plot, denied by Sison.<ref>{{Cite news |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/777194/joma-sison-cpp-ninoy-have-no-role-in-plaza-miranda-bombing |title=Joma Sison: CPP, Ninoy have no role in Plaza Miranda bombing |last=Gonzales |first=Yuji Vincent |access-date=January 31, 2018 |archive-date=February 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201075438/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/777194/joma-sison-cpp-ninoy-have-no-role-in-plaza-miranda-bombing |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Richard Nixon with the Marcos family.png|thumb|[[Richard Nixon]] with the Marcos family in 1969]]

Some historians claim Marcos was responsible for the Plaza Miranda bombing as he is known to have used [[false flag]] operations as a pretext for martial law.<ref name="Donnely&Hassman1987">{{Cite book |url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=RmMCmvYBQtMC|page=280}} |title=International Handbook of Human Rights |last1=Donnelly |first1=Jack |last2=Howard-Hassmann |first2=Rhoda E. | author2-link = Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann |date=1987 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313247880 |pages=280–281 |access-date=January 31, 2018 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163431/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmMCmvYBQtMC&pg=PA280 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=3_0TBwAAQBAJ|page=1225}} |title=World Terrorism: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era |last=Ciment |first=James |date=March 10, 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317451518 |access-date=January 31, 2018 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163430/https://books.google.com/books?id=3_0TBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1225#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> US intelligence documents declassified in the 1990s contained evidence implicating Marcos, provided by a CIA mole within the Philippine Army.<ref name="Blitz2000">{{Cite book|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=n2rdOhMdCDEC|page=94}}|title=The Contested State: American Foreign Policy and Regime Change in the Philippines|last=Blitz|first=Amy|date=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780847699346|pages=106–112|access-date=January 31, 2018|archive-date=November 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107163430/https://books.google.com/books?id=n2rdOhMdCDEC&pg=PA94|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another false flag attack took place with the attempted assassination of Defense Minister [[Juan Ponce Enrile]] in 1972. [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] approved Marcos's subsequent martial law initiative.<ref name="Blitz2000" />

===1971 suspension of ''habeas corpus''===
On August 21, Marcos issued ''Proclamation No. 889'', through which he assumed [[State of emergency|emergency powers]] and suspended the writ of ''habeas corpus.''<ref name="GovPH-PP889">{{cite web |title=Proclamation No. 889, s. 1971 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1971/08/21/proclamation-no-889-s-1971/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |access-date=June 2, 2020 |date=August 21, 1971 |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309005940/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1971/08/21/proclamation-no-889-s-1971/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Simafrania2006">{{cite news |last=Simafrania |first=Eduardo D. |title=Commemorating Ninoy Aquino's assassination |work=[[The Manila Times]] |date=August 21, 2006 |url=http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/aug/21/yehey/opinion/20060821opi6.html |access-date=October 27, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018070946/http://manilatimes.net/national/2006/aug/21/yehey/opinion/20060821opi6.html |archive-date=October 18, 2007}}</ref>

Marcos's act forced many members of the moderate opposition, such as [[Edgar Jopson]], to join the radicals. In the aftermath of the bombing, Marcos lumped all of the opposition together and referred to them as communists. Many former moderates fled to the radicals' mountain encampments to avoid arrest by Marcos's forces. Those disenchanted with the Marcos administration often joined the ranks of the radicals as the only group vocally opposing Marcos.<ref name="Pimentel2006">{{Cite book |title=U.G. an underground tale : the journey of Edgar Jopson and the first quarter storm generation |last=Pimentel |first=Benjamin |date=2006 |publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc |isbn=978-9712715907 |location=Pasig |oclc=81146038}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2020}}

===1972 Manila bombings===
{{Main|1972 Manila bombings}}{{Excerpt|1972 Manila bombings}}