Editing Comanche (section)

==Culture==

[[File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 085.jpg|thumb|upright|Uwat (Comanche), photograph by [[Edward Curtis]], 1930]]

===Childbirth===
[[File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 003.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Comanche mother and baby son in cradleboard, photo by [[Edward Curtis]]]]
[[File:Cradleboard of the Kiowa or Comanche people.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Comanche [[cradleboard]] held at the [[Birmingham Museum of Art]]]]

If a woman went into [[Labour (childbirth)|labor]] while the band was in camp, she was moved to a [[tipi]], or a brush lodge if it was summer. One or more of the older women assisted as [[Midwifery|midwives]]. Men were not allowed inside the tipi during or immediately after the delivery.<ref>Wallace and Hoebel (1952) p.142</ref>

First, the midwives softened the [[earthen floor]] of the tipi and dug two holes. One of the holes was for heating water and the other for the [[Placenta|afterbirth]]. One or two stakes were driven into the ground near the expectant mother's bedding for her to grip during the pain of labor. After the birth, the midwives hung the [[umbilical cord]] on a [[Celtis|hackberry]] tree. The people believed that if the umbilical cord was not disturbed before it rotted, the baby would live a long and prosperous life.<ref>Wallace and Hoebel (1952) pp.143, 144</ref>

The newborn was [[Swaddling|swaddled]] and remained with its mother in the tipi for a few days. The baby was placed in a [[cradleboard]], and the mother went back to work. She could easily carry the cradleboard on her back, or prop it against a tree where the baby could watch her while she collected seeds or roots. Cradleboards consisted of a flat board to which a basket was attached. The latter was made from rawhide straps, or a leather sheath that laced up the front. With soft, dry moss as a diaper, the young one was safely tucked into the leather pocket. During cold weather, the baby was wrapped in blankets, and then placed in the cradleboard. The baby remained in the cradleboard for about ten months; then it was allowed to crawl around.<ref name="Wallace and Hoebel 1952 p.120">Wallace and Hoebel (1952) p.120</ref>

Both girls and boys were welcomed into the band, but boys were favored. If the baby was a boy, one of the midwives informed the father or grandfather, "It's your close friend". Families might paint a flap on the tipi to tell the rest of the tribe that they had been strengthened with another warrior. Sometimes a man named his child, but mostly the father asked a [[medicine man]] (or another man of distinction) to do so. He did this in the hope of his child living a long and productive life. During the public naming ceremony, the medicine man lit his pipe and offered smoke to the heavens, earth, and each of the four directions. He prayed that the child would remain happy and healthy. He then lifted the child to symbolize its growing up and announced the child's name four times. He held the child a little higher each time he said the name. It was believed that the child's name foretold its future; even a weak or sick child could grow up to be a great warrior, hunter, and raider if given a name suggesting courage and strength.<ref name="Wallace and Hoebel 1952 p.120"/> Boys were often named after their grandfather, uncle, or other relative. Girls were usually named after one of their father's relatives, but the name was selected by the mother. As children grew up they also acquired nicknames at different points in their lives, to express some aspect of their lives.<ref>Wallace and Hoebel (1952) pp.122, 123</ref>

===Children===

The Comanche looked on their children as their most precious gift. Children were rarely punished.<ref>Wallace and Hoebel (1952) p.124</ref> Sometimes, though, an older sister or other relative was called upon to discipline a child, or the parents arranged for a [[boogey man]] to scare the child. Occasionally, old people donned sheets and frightened disobedient boys and girls. Children were also told about Big Maneater Owl (''Pia Mupitsi''), who lived in a cave on the south side of the [[Wichita Mountains|Witchita Mountains]] and ate bad children at night.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Capua|first=Sarah|title=The Comanche|year=2006|publisher=Benchmark Books|isbn=978-0-7614-2249-5|pages=22, 23}}</ref>

Children learned from example, by observing and listening to their parents and others in the band. As soon as she was old enough to walk, a girl followed her mother about the camp and played at the daily tasks of cooking and making clothing. She was also very close to her mother's sisters, who were called not aunt but ''pia'', meaning mother. She was given a little deerskin doll, which she took with her everywhere. She learned to make all the clothing for the doll.<ref name="WH124125"/>

A boy identified not only with his father but with his father's family, as well as with the bravest warriors in the band. He learned to ride a horse before he could walk. By the time he was four or five, he was expected to be able to skillfully handle a horse. When he was five or six, he was given a small [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow (weapon)|arrow]]s. Often, a boy was taught to ride and shoot by his grandfather, since his father and other warriors were on raids and hunts. His grandfather also taught him about his own boyhood and the history and legends of the Comanche.<ref name="WH125-132"/>

[[File:Comanche child 1908.jpg|thumb|upright|A 19th-century Comanche child]]
As the boy grew older, he joined the other boys to hunt birds. He eventually ranged farther from camp looking for better game to kill. Encouraged to be skillful hunters, boys learned the signs of the [[prairie]] as they learned to patiently and quietly stalk game. They became more self-reliant, yet, by playing together as a group, also formed the bonds and cooperative spirit that they would need when they hunted and raided.<ref name="WH125-132"/>
[[File:Comanches.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Comanches of West [[Texas]] in war regalia, c. 1830]]

Boys were highly respected because they would become warriors and might die young in battle. As he approached manhood, a boy went on his first buffalo hunt. If he made a kill, his father honored him with a feast. Only after he had proven himself on a buffalo hunt was a young man allowed to go to war.<ref name="WH125-132"/>

When he was ready to become a warrior, at about age 15 or 16, a young man first "made his medicine" by going on a [[vision quest]] (a [[rite of passage]]). Following this quest, his father gave him a good horse to ride into battle and another mount for the trail. If he had proved himself as a warrior, a Give Away Dance might be held in his honor. As drummers faced east, the honored boy and other young men danced. His parents, along with his other relatives and the people in the band, threw presents at his feet – especially blankets and horses symbolized by sticks. Anyone might snatch one of the gifts for themselves, although those with many possessions refrained; they did not want to appear greedy. People often gave away all their belongings during these dances, providing for others in the band, but leaving themselves with nothing.<ref name="WH125-132">Wallace and Hoebel (1952) pp. 126–132</ref>

Girls learned to gather berries, nuts, and roots. They carried water and collected wood, and at about 12 years old learned to cook meals, make tipis, sew clothing, prepare hides, and perform other tasks essential to becoming a wife and mother. They were then considered ready to be married.<ref name="WH124125">Wallace and Hoebel (1952) pp. 124, 125</ref>

===Death===
During the 19th century, the traditional Comanche burial custom was to wrap the deceased's body in a blanket and place it on a horse, behind a rider, who would then ride in search of an appropriate burial place, such as a secure cave. After entombment, the rider covered the body with stones and returned to camp, where the mourners burned all the deceased's possessions. The primary mourner slashed his arms to express his grief. The Quahada band followed this custom longer than other bands and buried their relatives in the [[Wichita Mountains|Witchita Mountains]]. Christian missionaries persuaded Comanche people to bury their dead in coffins in graveyards,<ref>Kroeker</ref> which is the practice today.

===Transportation and habitation===
[[File:Catlin -- Comanche warrior and tipi.jpg|thumb|left|Comanche Tipis painted by [[George Catlin]]]]
[[File:Ako, a Comanche warrior and horse -.jpg|thumb|Comanche warrior ''Ako'' and horse. Photo by James Mooney, 1892]]
[[File:Three mounted Comanche warriors - 1892.jpg|thumb|Three mounted Comanche warriors, left, Frank Moetah. Photo by James Mooney, 1892]]
When they lived with the Shoshone, the Comanche mainly used dog-drawn [[travois]] for transportation. Later, they acquired horses from other tribes, such as the Pueblo, and from the Spaniards. Because horses are faster, easier to control and stronger, this helped with hunting, warfare and moving camp. Larger dwellings were made due to the ability to pull and carry more belongings. Being herbivores, horses were also easier to feed than dogs, since meat was a valuable resource.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) pp. 20–24</ref> The horse was of the utmost value to the Comanche. A Comanche man's wealth was measured by the size of his horse herd. Horses were prime targets to steal during raids; often raids were conducted specifically to capture horses. Often horse herds numbering in the hundreds were stolen by Comanche during raids against other Indian nations, Spanish, Mexicans, and later from the ranches of Texans. Horses were used for warfare with the Comanche being considered to be among the finest light cavalry and mounted warriors in history.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Culture and the Horse|url=http://paulrittman.com/Indian%20Culture%20and%20the%20Horse.pdf|access-date=2013-05-26|archive-date=April 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412025028/http://paulrittman.com/Indian%20Culture%20and%20the%20Horse.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Comanche Feats of Horsemanship-George Catlin.jpg|thumb|left|''Comanche Feats of Horsemenship'', [[George Catlin]] 1834]]

The Comanche covered their tipis with buffalo hides sewn together. To prepare the hides, women spread them on the ground, scraped off the fat and flesh with blades of bone or antler, and dried them in the sun. Then the women scraped off the thick hair and soaked the hides in water. After several days, they vigorously rubbed them in a mixture of fat, brains and liver to soften them. They softened them further by rinsing and working back and forth over a rawhide thong. Finally, they were smoked over a fire, which gave them a tan color. To finish the tipi covering, women laid the tanned hides side by side and stitched them together. As many as 22 hides could be used, but 14 was the average. The sewn cover was tied to a pole and raised, wrapped around the cone-shaped frame, and pinned with pencil-sized wooden skewers. Two wing-shaped flaps at the top of the tipi were turned back to make an opening, which could be adjusted to keep out moisture and held pockets of insulating air. With a fire pit in the center of the earthen floor, the tipis stayed warm in winter. In summer, the bottom edges of the tipis could be rolled up to let in a breeze. Cooking was done outside during hot weather. Tipis were very practical homes for nomads. Working together, women could quickly set them up or take them down. An entire Comanche band could be packed and chasing a buffalo herd within about 20 minutes. The women did most food processing and preparation.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) pp. 29–30</ref>

===Food===
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Comanche Indians Chasing Buffalo with Lances and Bows.jpg|thumb|Comanches chasing bison, painted by [[George Catlin]]. Bison were the primary food source for the Comanche.]]
The Comanche were initially [[hunter-gatherers]]. When they lived in the [[Rocky Mountains]], during their migration to the Great Plains, both men and women shared responsibility for gathering and providing food. When the Comanche reached the plains, hunting predominated. Hunting was considered a male activity and was a principal source of prestige. For meat, the Comanche hunted [[Plains bison|bison]], [[elk]], [[American black bear|black bear]], [[pronghorn]], and [[deer]]. When game was scarce, the men hunted wild mustangs, and sometimes ate their own ponies. In later years the Comanche raided Texas ranches and stole longhorn cattle. They did not eat fish or fowl, unless starving. 

Women prepared and cooked bison meat and other game. Women also gathered wild fruits, seeds, nuts, berries, roots and tubers, including [[plum]]s, [[grape]]s, [[juniper]] berries, [[persimmon]]s, [[mulberry|mulberries]], [[acorn]]s, [[pecan]]s, wild [[onion]]s, [[radish]]es, and tuna, the fruit of the [[prickly pear cactus]]. The Comanche also acquired [[maize]], dried [[pumpkin]], and [[tobacco]] through trade and raids. They roasted meat over a fire or boiled it. To boil fresh or dried meat and vegetables, women dug a pit in the ground, which they lined with animal skins or bison stomach and filled with water to make a kind of cooking pot. They placed heated stones in the water until it boiled and had cooked their stew. After Spanish contact, Comanche traded for copper pots and iron kettles, which made cooking easier.

Women used berries and nuts, as well as honey and [[tallow]], to flavor bison meat. They stored the tallow in intestine casings or rawhide pouches called ''oyóotû¿''. They especially liked to make a sweet mush of bison marrow mixed with crushed mesquite beans.

The Comanches sometimes ate raw meat, especially raw liver flavored with [[bile|gall]]. They also drank the milk from the slashed udders of bison, deer, and elk.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Indians of Texas: from prehistoric to modern times|last=Newcomb|first=W.W. Jr.|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-292-78425-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansoftexasfr00newc/page/164 164]|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansoftexasfr00newc/page/164}}</ref> Among their delicacies was the curdled milk from the stomachs of suckling bison calves. They also enjoyed bison tripe, or stomachs.

Comanche generally ate a light meal breakfast and a large dinner. They ate during the day when they were hungry or when it was convenient. Like other [[Plains Indians|Plains tribes]], the Comanche were very hospitable. They prepared meals whenever a visitor arrived in camp, which led to outsiders' belief that the Comanches ate at all hours of the day or night. Many families offered thanks as they sat down to eat their meals.

Comanche children ate [[pemmican]], but this was primarily a tasty, high-energy food reserved for war parties. Carried in a [[parfleche]] pouch, pemmican was eaten only when the men did not have time to hunt. Similarly, in camp, people ate pemmican only when other food was scarce. Traders ate pemmican sliced and dipped in honey, which they called Indian bread.

===Clothing===
[[File:Feather headdress Comanche EthnM.jpg|thumb|upright|Comanche [[headdress]] at the Ethnologisches Museum, Berlin]]
[[File:Chosequah- Comanche Indian.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Chosequah, a Comanche warrior wearing full traditional regalia. Painted by [[Elbridge Ayer Burbank|E. A. Burbank]], 1897.]]
Comanche clothing was simple and easy to wear. Men wore a leather belt with a breechcloth — a long piece of buckskin brought up between the legs and looped over and under the belt at the front and back, and loose-fitting deerskin leggings. [[Moccasins]] had soles made from thick, tough buffalo hide with soft deerskin uppers. Men wore nothing on the upper body, except in winter when they wore heavy robes of buffalo hide (or occasionally, [[American black bear|bear]], [[wolf]], or [[coyote]] skins) with knee-length buffalo-hide boots. Young boys usually went naked except in cold weather. By age 8 or 9, they wore adult clothing. In the 19th century, men had replaced the buckskin breechcloths by woven cloth, and wore loose-fitting buckskin shirts. Women wore long deerskin dresses with a flared skirt and wide, long sleeves, with buckskin fringes on the sleeves and hem. Beads and pieces of metal were attached in geometric patterns. Women wore buckskin moccasins with buffalo soles. Women decorated their shirts, leggings and moccasins with fringes of deer-skin, animal fur, and human hair. They also decorated their shirts and leggings with patterns and shapes of beads and scraps of material. In winter they, too, wore warm buffalo robes and tall, fur-lined buffalo-hide boots. Unlike boys, girls old enough to walk were dressed in breechcloths. By age 12 or 13, they wore women's clothing.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) p. 31</ref>

===Hair and headgear===
Comanche people took pride in their hair, which was worn long. They arranged it with [[porcupine]] quill brushes, greased it and parted it in the center from the forehead to the back of the neck. They painted the scalp along the parting with yellow, red, or white clay (or other colors). They wore their hair in two long braids tied with leather thongs or colored cloth, and sometimes wrapped with [[beaver]] fur. They also braided a strand of hair from the top of their head. This slender braid, called a scalp lock, was decorated with colored scraps of cloth and beads, and a single feather. Comanche men rarely wore anything on their heads. Only after they moved onto a reservation late in the 19th century did men begin to wear the typical Plains [[headdress]]. In severe cold, they might wear a brimless, woolly buffalo hide hat. At war, some warriors wore a headdress of buffalo scalp. Warriors cut away most of the hide and flesh from a buffalo head, leaving only a portion of the woolly head and the horns. This type of hat was worn only by the Comanche. Women did not let their hair grow as long as the men did. Young women might wear their hair long and braided, but women parted their hair in the middle and kept it short. Like the men, they painted their scalp along the parting with bright paint.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) pp. 31, 32</ref>

===Body decoration===
Comanche men usually had [[pierced ears]] with hanging earrings made of pieces of shell or loops of brass or silver wire. A female relative would pierce the outer edge of the ear with six or eight holes. The men also [[tattoo]]ed his face, arms, and chest with geometric designs, and painted his face and body. Traditionally they used paints made of berry juice and the colored clays of the Comancheria. Later, traders supplied them with vermilion (red pigment) and bright grease paints. Men wore bands of leather and strips of metal on their arms. Except for black, which was the color for war, there was no standard color or pattern for face and body painting: it was a matter of individual preference. For example, one man might paint one side of his face white and the other side red; another might paint one side of his body green and the other side with green and black stripes. One Comanche might always paint himself in a particular way, while another might change the colors and designs when so inclined. Some designs had special meaning to the individual, and special colors and designs might have been revealed in a dream. Women might also tattoo their face or arms. They were fond of painting their bodies and were free to do so as they pleased. It was popular for women to paint the insides of their ears a bright red and paint great orange and red circles on their cheeks. They usually painted red and yellow around their lips.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) pp. 32, 33</ref> 
[[File:Comanche ration bag 1880 OHS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Comanche beaded ration bag, c. 1880, collection of the [[Oklahoma History Center]]]]

=== Art and material culture ===
Because of their frequent nomadic traveling, Comanche had to make sure that their household goods and other possessions were unbreakable. They did not use pottery that could easily be broken on long journeys. Weaving, wood carving, and metal working were unknown. Instead, they depended on buffalo for most of their tools, household goods, and weapons. They made nearly 200 different utilitarian items from the horns, hide, and bones.

Removing the lining of the inner stomach, women made the paunch into a water bag. The lining was stretched over four sticks and filled with water to make a pot for cooking soups and stews. With wood scarce on the plains, women relied on buffalo chips (dried dung) as fuel for cooking and heat.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) p 28</ref>

Stiff rawhide was fashioned into saddles, stirrups and cinches, knife cases, buckets, and moccasin soles. Rawhide was also made into rattles and drums. Strips of rawhide were twisted into sturdy ropes. Scraped to resemble white parchment, rawhide skins were folded to make parfleches in which food, clothing, and other personal belongings were kept. Women also [[Tanning (leather)|tanned hides]] to make soft and supple buckskin, which was used for tipi covers, warm robes, blankets, cloths, and moccasins. They used buckskin for bedding, cradles, dolls, bags, pouches, quivers, and gun cases.

[[Sinew]] was used for bowstrings and sewing thread. Hooves were turned into glue and rattles. Horns were shaped into cups, spoons, and ladles, while the tail made a whip, fly-swatter, or a tipi decoration. Men made tools, scrapers, needles, pipes and children's toys from the bones. But men concentrated on making bows and arrows, lances, and shields. The thick neck skin of an old bull was ideal for war shields that deflected arrows as well as bullets. Since they spent most of each day on horseback, they also fashioned leather into saddles, stirrups, and other equipment for their mounts. Buffalo hair was used to fill saddle pads and was used in rope and halters.<ref>Rollings, Deer (2004) pp 25, 26</ref>

===Language===
{{Main|Comanche language}}
[[File:Charles Chibitty.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Chibitty]], Comanche [[code talker]] in [[World War II]]]]

The language spoken by the [[Comanche people]], ''[[Comanche language|Comanche]]'' (''N<s>u</s>m<s>u</s> tekwap<u><s>u</s></u>''), is a [[Numic languages|Numic language]] of the [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan language group]]. It is closely related to the [[Shoshone language|language of the Shoshone]], from which the Comanche diverged around 1700. The two languages remain closely related, but a few low-level sound changes inhibit mutual intelligibility. The earliest records of Comanche from 1786 clearly show a dialect of Shoshone, but by the beginning of the 20th century, these sound changes had modified the way Comanche sounded in subtle, but profound, ways.<ref>McLaughlin (1992), 158–81</ref><ref>McLaughlin (2000), 293–304</ref> Although efforts are now being made to ensure survival of the language, most of its speakers are elderly, and less than 1% of the Comanches can speak it.

In the late 19th century, many Comanche children were placed in boarding schools with children from different tribes. The children were taught English and discouraged from speaking their native language. Anecdotally, enforcement of speaking English was severe.

Quanah Parker learned and spoke English and was adamant that his own children do the same. The second generation then grew up speaking English, because it was believed{{who|date=June 2014}} that it was better for them not to know Comanche.<ref name="Hämäläinen 2008, p.171">Hämäläinen (2008), p.171</ref>

Comanches were among the Native Americans who were first utilized as [[code talker]]s by the U.S. Army during World War I.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Code Talkers – World War I Centennial|url=https://www.worldwar1centennial.org/index.php/american-indians-in-ww1-code-talkers.html|access-date=2021-05-25|website=www.worldwar1centennial.org}}</ref>

During [[World War II]], a group of 17 young men, referred to as "the Comanche code talkers", were trained and used by the [[U.S. Army]] to send messages conveying sensitive information that could not be deciphered by the Germans.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holm|first=Tom|title=Code Talkers and Warriors: Native Americans and World War II|year=2007|publisher=Chelsea House Publications|isbn=978-0-7910-9340-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/codetalkerswarri00holm_0/page/108 108–120]|chapter=The Comanche Code Talkers|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/codetalkerswarri00holm_0/page/108}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/d-day-70th-anniversary/comanche-indians-honor-d-day-code-talkers-n126216|work=D-Day 70th Anniversary|title=Comanche Indians Honor D-Day Code-Talkers|date=June 9, 2014|publisher=NBC News }}</ref>