Editing Boxer Rebellion (section)

== Aftermath ==
=== Allied occupation and atrocities ===
[[File:Mutual Protection of Southeast China.png|thumb|The Russian Empire occupied Manchuria while the Eight Nation Alliance jointly occupied Zhili province. The rest of China outside of Manchuria and Zhili were unaffected due to the governor generals who participated in the [[Mutual Protection of Southeast China]] in 1900.]]
The Eight Nation Alliance occupied Zhili province while Russia occupied Manchuria, but the rest of China was not occupied due to the actions of several Han governors who formed the [[Mutual Protection of Southeast China]] that refused to obey the declaration of war and kept their armies and provinces out of the war. Zhang Zhidong told Everard Fraser, the Hankou-based British consul general, that he despised Manchus so that the Eight Nation Alliance would not occupy provinces under the Mutual Defense Pact.{{sfnp|Rhoads|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74–75]}}

Beijing, Tianjin and Zhili province were occupied for more than one year by the international expeditionary force under the command of German Field Marshal [[Alfred von Waldersee]], who had initially been appointed commander of the Eight-Nation Alliance during the rebellion but did not arrive in China until after most of the fighting had ended. The Americans and British paid General [[Yuan Shikai]] and his army (the [[New Army|Right Division]]) to help the Eight Nation Alliance suppress the Boxers. Yuan Shikai's forces killed tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in Zhili province and Shandong after the Alliance captured Beijing.{{sfnp|Edgerton|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge/page/94 94]}} The majority of the hundreds of thousands of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from the Eight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, when Han Chinese were expelled.{{sfnp|Rhoads|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38]}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fu |first1=Chonglan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDulDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |title=An Urban History of China |last2=Cao |first2=Wenming |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |isbn=978-981-13-8211-6 |page=83}}</ref> Sawara Tokusuke, a Japanese journalist, wrote in "Miscellaneous Notes about the Boxers" about the rapes of Manchu and Mongol banner girls. He alleged that soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance raped a large number of women in Peking, including all seven daughters of [[Yulu (viceroy)|Viceroy Yulu]] of the [[Hitara]] clan. Likewise, a daughter and a wife of Mongol banner noble [[Chongqi (official)|Chongqi]] of the [[Arute Hala|Alute clan]] were allegedly gang-raped by soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance.<ref>Sawara Tokusuke, ''Miscellaneous Notes about the Boxers'' (Quanshi zaji), in Compiled Materials on the Boxers (Yihetuan wenxian huibian), ed. Zhongguo shixue hui (Taipei: Dingwen, 1973), 1: 266–268.</ref> Chongqi killed himself on 26 August 1900, and some other relatives, including his son, Baochu, did likewise shortly afterward.<ref>Chao-ying Fang. "Chongqi". In ''Eminent Chinese of the Qing Period: (1644–1911/2)'', 74–75. Great Barrington, Massachusetts: Berkshire Publishing Group. 2018.</ref>

During attacks on suspected Boxer areas from September 1900 to March 1901, European and American forces engaged in tactics which included public decapitations of Chinese with suspected Boxer sympathies, systematic looting, routine shooting of farm animals and crop destruction, destruction of religious buildings and public buildings, burning of religious texts, and widespread rape of Chinese women and girls.{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=212}}

Contemporary British and American observers levelled their greatest criticism at German, Russian, and Japanese troops for their ruthlessness and willingness to execute Chinese of all ages and backgrounds, sometimes burning villages and killing their entire populations.{{sfnp|Cohen|1997|p=185}} The German force arrived too late to take part in the fighting but undertook punitive expeditions to villages in the countryside. According to missionary [[Arthur Henderson Smith]], in addition to burning and looting, Germans "cut off the heads of many Chinese within their jurisdiction, many of them for absolutely trivial offenses".{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=213}} US Army Lieutenant C.&nbsp;D. Rhodes reported that German and French soldiers set fire to buildings where innocent peasants were sheltering and would shoot and bayonet peasants who fled the burning buildings.{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=216}} According to Australian soldiers, Germans extorted ransom payments from villages in exchange for not torching their homes and crops.{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=216}} British journalist George Lynch wrote that German and Italian soldiers engaged in a practice of raping Chinese women and girls before burning their villages.{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=217}} According to Lynch, German soldiers would attempt to cover up these atrocities by throwing rape victims into wells as staged suicides.{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=217}} Lynch said, "There are things that I must not write, and that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilisation of ours is merely a veneer over savagery".{{sfnp|Preston|2000|pp=284–285}}

On 27 July, during departure ceremonies for the German relief force, Kaiser Wilhelm II included an impromptu but intemperate reference to the [[Hun]] invaders of continental Europe:
{{cquote|Should you encounter the enemy, he will be defeated! No quarter will be given! Prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns under their King [[Attila]] made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty in history and legend, may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no Chinese will ever again dare to look cross-eyed at a German.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wilhelm II: "Hun Speech" (1900) ''German History in Documents and Images'' (GHDI) |url=http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=755 |publisher=germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org}}</ref>}}

[[File:Execution of a Boxer by the French, Teintsin.jpg|left|thumb|French troops observe the execution of a Boxer]]
One newspaper called the aftermath of the siege a "carnival of ancient loot", and others called it "an orgy of looting" by soldiers, civilians and missionaries. These characterisations called to mind the sacking of the Summer Palace in 1860.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hevia |first=James L. |title=The Boxers, China, and the World |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2007 |editor-last=Bickers |editor-first=Robert A. |editor-link=Robert Bickers |location=Lanham, MD |page=94 |chapter=Looting and Its Discontents: Moral Discourse and the Plunder of Beijing, 1900–1901 |editor-last2=Tiedemann |editor-first2=R. G. |editor-link2=R. G. Tiedemann}}</ref> Each nationality accused the others of being the worst looters. An American diplomat, [[Herbert G. Squiers]], filled several railway carriages with loot and artefacts. The British Legation held loot auctions every afternoon and proclaimed, "Looting on the part of British troops was carried out in the most orderly manner." However, one British officer noted, "It is one of the unwritten [[laws of war]] that a city which does not surrender at the last and is taken by storm is looted." For the rest of 1900 and 1901, the British held loot auctions every day except Sunday in front of the main-gate to the British Legation. Many foreigners, including [[Claude Maxwell MacDonald]] and Lady Ethel MacDonald and [[George Ernest Morrison]] of ''[[The Times]]'', were active bidders among the crowd. Many of these looted items ended up in Europe.{{sfnp|Preston|2000|pp=284–285}} The Catholic [[Xishiku Cathedral|Beitang]] or North Cathedral was a "salesroom for stolen property".<ref>Chamberlin, Wilbur J. letter to his wife (11 December 1900), in [https://books.google.com/books?id=r4IdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA191 ''Ordered to China: Letters of Wilbur J. Chamberlin: Written from China While Under Commission from the New York Sun During the Boxer Uprising of 1900 and the International Complications Which Followed''], (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1903), p. 191</ref> The American general [[Adna Chaffee]] banned looting by American soldiers, but the ban was ineffectual.{{sfnp|Thompson|2009|pp=194–197}} According to Chaffee, "it is safe to say that where one real Boxer has been killed, fifty harmless coolies or laborers, including not a few women and children, have been slain".{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=213}}

A few Western missionaries took an active part in calling for retribution. To provide restitution to missionaries and Chinese Christian families whose property had been destroyed, [[William Scott Ament]], a missionary of [[American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions]], guided American troops through villages to punish those he suspected of being Boxers and confiscate their property. When [[Mark Twain]] read of this expedition, he wrote a scathing essay, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness", that attacked the "Reverend bandits of the American Board", especially targeting Ament, one of the most respected missionaries in China.{{sfnp|Thompson|2009|pp=207–208}} The controversy was front-page news during much of 1901. Ament's counterpart on the distaff side was British missionary Georgina Smith, who presided over a neighbourhood in Beijing as judge and jury.{{sfnp|Thompson|2009|pp=204–214}}

While one historical account reported that Japanese troops were astonished by other Alliance troops raping civilians,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtmzFZS_SX0C&pg=PA301 |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History |last2=Walthall |first2=Anne |last3=Palais |first3=James |publisher=Cengage |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-547-00534-8 |page=301}}</ref> others noted that Japanese troops were "looting and burning without mercy", and that Chinese "women and girls by hundreds have committed suicide to escape a worse fate at the hands of Russian and Japanese brutes".{{sfnp|Cohen|1997|p=184}} Roger Keyes, who commanded the British destroyer ''[[HMS Fame (1896)|Fame]]'' and accompanied the Gaselee Expedition, noted that the Japanese had brought their own "regimental wives" (prostitutes) to the front to keep their soldiers from raping Chinese civilians.{{sfnp|Preston|2000|pp=90, 284–285}}

[[File:Execution of Boxers after the rebellion.png|right|thumb|Execution of Boxers by standing strangulation]]
''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' journalist [[E. J. Dillon]] stated{{where|date=December 2023}} that he witnessed the mutilated corpses of Chinese women who were raped and killed by the Alliance troops. The French commander dismissed the rapes, attributing them to "gallantry of the French soldier".{{where|date=December 2023}} According to U.S. Captain [[Grote Hutcheson]], French forces burned each village they encountered during a 99-mile march and planted the French flag in the ruins.{{sfnp|Driscoll|2020|p=215}}

Many bannermen supported the Boxers, and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crossley |first=Pamela Kyle |title=Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/orphanwarriorsth00cros_0/page/174 174]}}</ref> Bannermen had been devastated in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] in 1895 and Banner armies were destroyed while resisting the invasion. In the words of historian [[Pamela Crossley]], their living conditions went "from desperate poverty to true misery".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=M. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA80 |title=Lessons in Being Chinese: Minority Education and Ethnic Identity in Southwest China |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-295-80412-5 |page=80 |access-date=18 June 2017}}</ref> When thousands of Manchus fled south from [[Aigun]] during the fighting in 1900, their cattle and horses were stolen by Russian Cossacks who then burned their villages and homes to ashes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shirokogoroff |first=S. M. |title=Social Organization of the Manchus: A Study of the Manchu Clan Organization |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society (North China Branch) |year=1924 |location=Shanghai |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZERxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref> Manchu Banner armies were destroyed while resisting the invasion, many annihilated by Russians. Manchu Shoufu killed himself during the battle of Peking and the Manchu [[Lao She]]'s father was killed by Western soldiers in the battle as the Manchu banner armies of the Center Division of the Guards Army, [[Tiger Spirit Division]] and [[Peking Field Force]] in the Metropolitan banners were slaughtered by the western soldiers. The Inner-city Legation Quarters and Catholic cathedral ([[Church of the Saviour, Beijing]]) were both attacked by Manchu bannermen. Manchu bannermen were slaughtered by the Eight Nation Alliance all over Manchuria and Beijing because most of the Manchu bannermen supported the Boxers.{{sfnp|Rhoads|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}}The clan system of the Manchus in Aigun was obliterated by the despoliation of the area at the hands of the Russian invaders.{{sfnp|Chang|1956|p=110}} There were 1,266 households including 900 [[Daurs]] and 4,500 Manchus in [[Sixty-Four Villages East of the River]] and [[Blagoveshchensk]] until the [[Blagoveshchensk massacre and Sixty-Four Villages East of the River massacre]] committed by Russian Cossack soldiers.<ref>俄罗斯帝国总参谋部. 《亚洲地理、地形和统计材料汇编》. 俄罗斯帝国: 圣彼得堡. 1886年: 第三十一卷·第185页 （俄语）.</ref> Many Manchu villages were burned by Cossacks in the massacre according to Victor Zatsepine.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Higgins |first=Andrew |date=26 March 2020 |title=On Russia-China Border, Selective Memory of Massacre Works for Both Sides |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/26/world/europe/russia-china-border.html |url-access=limited |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326151027/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/26/world/europe/russia-china-border.html |archive-date=26 March 2020 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>

Manchu royals, officials and officers like [[Yuxian (Qing dynasty)|Yuxian]], [[Qixiu]], [[Zaixun, Prince Zhuang]] and Captain [[Clemens von Ketteler#Boxer rebellion and death|Enhai]] were executed or forced to commit suicide by the Eight Nation Alliance. Manchu official [[Gangyi]]'s execution was demanded, but he had already died.<ref>{{wikisource-inline|清史稿/卷465#剛毅|清史稿/卷465}} ([[Draft History of Qing]] Volume 465)</ref> Japanese soldiers arrested Qixiu before he was executed.<ref>佐原篤介《拳亂紀聞》：「兵部尚書啟秀因曾力助舊黨，並曾奏保五臺山僧人普靜為聖僧，調令攻襲什庫，八月廿七日為日兵拘禁。」</ref> Zaixun, Prince Zhuang was forced to commit suicide on 21 February 1901.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:封建蒙昧主义与义和团运动 |url=http://www.qingchao.net/lishi/yihetuan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703000215/http://www.qingchao.net/lishi/yihetuan/ |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:平安里的诞生日就是辉煌了十三代的庄王府覆灭时 |url=http://www.bjxch.gov.cn/pub/xch_wenziban/B/xcly/xcly_4/200812/t20081209_1131407.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131319/http://www.bjxch.gov.cn/pub/xch_wenziban/B/xcly/xcly_4/200812/t20081209_1131407.html |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=zh}}</ref> They executed Yuxian on 22 February 1901.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clements |first=Paul Henry |title=The Boxer rebellion: a political and diplomatic review |publisher=AMS Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-404-51160-9 |location=New York}}</ref>{{sfnp|Cohen|1997|p=55}} On 31 December 1900 German soldiers beheaded the Manchu captain Enhai for killing [[Clemens von Ketteler]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Przetacznik |first=Franciszek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaOknKJ3bNgC&pg=PA229 |title=Protection of officials of foreign states according to international law |publisher=Brill |year=1983 |isbn=90-247-2721-9 |page=229 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>{{sfnp|Rhoads|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}}

=== Indemnity ===
After the capture of Peking by the foreign armies, some of Cixi's advisers advocated that the war be carried on, arguing that China could have defeated the foreigners as it was disloyal and traitorous people within China who allowed Beijing and Tianjin to be captured by the Allies, and that the interior of China was impenetrable. They also recommended that Dong Fuxiang continue fighting. The Empress Dowager Cixi was practical however, and decided that the terms were generous enough for her to acquiesce when she was assured of her continued reign after the war and that China would not be forced to cede any territory.{{sfnp|Preston|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iWxKQejMtlMC&pg=PA312 312]}}

On 7 September 1901, the Qing imperial court agreed to sign the [[Boxer Protocol]], also known as Peace Agreement between the Eight-Nation Alliance and China. The protocol ordered the execution of 10 high-ranking officials linked to the outbreak and other officials who were found guilty for the slaughter of foreigners in China. [[Alfons Mumm von Schwarzenstein|Alfons Mumm]], [[Ernest Satow]], and [[Komura Jutaro]] signed on behalf of Germany, Britain, and Japan, respectively.

China was fined [[war reparations]] of 450,000,000 [[tael]]s of fine silver ({{approx.}}{{convert|540000000|ozt|t}}) for the loss that it caused. The reparation was to be paid by 1940, within 39 years, and would be 982,238,150 taels with interest (4 per cent per year) included. The existing tariff increased from 3.18 to 5 per cent, and formerly duty-free merchandise was newly taxed, to help meet these indemnity demands. The sum of reparations was estimated by the Chinese population size (roughly 450&nbsp;million in 1900) at one tael per person. Chinese customs income and salt taxes guaranteed the reparation.{{sfnp|Hsü|2000|pp=401, 405, 431}} China paid 668,661,220 taels of silver from 1901 to 1939&nbsp;– equivalent in 2010 to {{approx.}}US$61&nbsp;billion on a purchasing-power-parity basis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhaojin |first=Ji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHKlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |title=A History of Modern Shanghai Banking: The Rise and Decline of China's Financial Capitalism |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-47807-2 |page=75}}</ref>

A large portion of the reparations paid to the United States was diverted to pay for the education of Chinese students in US universities under the [[Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program]]. To prepare the students chosen for this program, an institute was established to teach the English language and to serve as a preparatory school. When the first of these students returned to China, they undertook the teaching of subsequent students; from this institute was born [[Tsinghua University]].

[[File:BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg|thumb|American troops during the Boxer Rebellion]]
The US China Inland Mission lost more members than any other missionary agency: 58 adults and 21 children were killed.{{sfnp|Broomhall|1901}}{{page needed|date=March 2024}}{{primary source inline|date=March 2024}} However, in 1901, when the allied nations were demanding compensation from the Chinese government, [[Hudson Taylor]] refused to accept payment for loss of property or life, to demonstrate the meekness and gentleness of Christ to the Chinese.{{sfnp|Broomhall|1901}}{{page needed|date=March 2024}}{{primary source inline|date=March 2024}}

The Belgian Catholic vicar apostolic of Ordos wanted foreign troops garrisoned in Inner Mongolia, but the Governor refused. Bermyn petitioned the Manchu [[Enming]] to send troops to [[Hetao]] where Prince Duan's Mongol troops and General [[Dong Fuxiang]]'s Muslim troops allegedly threatened Catholics. It turned out that Bermyn had created the incident as a hoax.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heylen |first=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSl5cl_wt24C&pg=PA203 |title=Chronique du Toumet-Ortos: Looking through the Lens of Joseph Van Oost, Missionary in Inner Mongolia (1915–1921) |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=2004 |isbn=90-5867-418-5 |page=203}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taveirne |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2japTNPRNAC&pg=PA539 |title=Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911 |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=2004 |isbn=90-5867-365-0 |page=539}}</ref> Western Catholic missionaries forced Mongols to give up their land to Han Chinese Catholics as part of the Boxer indemnities according to Mongol historian Shirnut Sodbilig.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taveirne |first=Patrick |title=World Views and Worldly Wisdom · Visions et expériences du monde: Religion, Ideology and Politics, 1750–2000 · Religion, idéologie et politique, 1750–2000 |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-94-6270-074-1 |editor-last=Maeyer |editor-first=Jan De |edition=Repr. |series=KADOC-Studies on Religion, Culture and Society |volume=17 |page=211 |chapter=Modern ethno-national visions and missionaries from the low countries at China's edge (1865–1948) |editor-last2=Viaene |editor-first2=Vincent |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QckaDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211}}</ref> Mongols had participated in attacks against Catholic missions in the Boxer rebellion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taveirne |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2japTNPRNAC&pg=PA568 |title=Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911 |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=2004 |isbn=90-5867-365-0 |edition=Illustrated |series=Louvain Chinese studies |volume=15 |page=568}}</ref>

The Qing government did not capitulate to all the foreign demands. The Manchu governor Yuxian was executed, but the imperial court refused to execute the Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang, although he had also encouraged the killing of foreigners during the rebellion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neaman Lipman |first=Jonathan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA224 |title=Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-295-97644-6 |location=Seattle |page=181}}</ref> Empress Dowager Cixi intervened when the Alliance demanded him executed and Dong was only cashiered and sent back home.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:董福祥与西北马家军阀的的故事 |url=http://www.360doc.com/content/10/0526/12/1256060_29592130.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214121754/http://www.360doc.com/content/10/0526/12/1256060_29592130.shtml |archive-date=14 December 2018 |access-date=30 October 2014 |language=zh}}</ref> Instead, Dong lived a life of luxury and power in "exile" in his home province of Gansu.<ref name="Hastings1916" /> Upon Dong's death in 1908, all honours which had been stripped from him were restored and he was given a full military burial.<ref name="Hastings1916">{{Cite book |last1=Hastings |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eEwTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA893 |title=Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics |last2=Selbie |first2=John Alexander |last3=Gray |first3=Louis Herbert |publisher=T. & T. Clark |year=1916 |isbn=978-0-567-06509-4 |volume=8 |page=894}}</ref> The indemnity was never fully paid and was lifted during World War II.{{sfnp|Hammond|2023|p=14}}