Editing Arch (section)

==History==
The arch became popular in the [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]] and mostly spread alongside the European influence, although it was known and occasionally used much earlier. Many ancient architectures avoided the use of arches, including the [[Viking architecture|Viking]] and [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]] ones.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=History}}  

===Bronze Age: ancient Near East===
True arches, as opposed to [[corbel arch]]es, were known by a number of civilizations in the [[ancient Near East]] including the [[Levant]], but their use was infrequent and mostly confined to underground structures, such as drains where the problem of lateral thrust is greatly diminished.<ref name="Jürgen Rasch 117">{{harvnb|Rasch|1985|p=117}}</ref>
An example of the latter would be the [[Nippur]] arch, built before 3800 BC,<ref>John P. Peters, University of Pennsylvania Excavations at Nippur. II. The Nippur Arch, The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/496542 352–368], (Jul. – Sep., 1895)</ref> and dated by  [[Hermann Volrath Hilprecht|H. V. Hilprecht]] (1859–1925) to even before 4000 BC.<ref>New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. I: [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.html?term=Babylonia Babylonia]: V. The People, Language, and Culture.: 7. The Civilization. Retrieved 9 April 2020.</ref> Rare exceptions are an arched mudbrick home doorway dated to {{Circa|2000&nbsp;BC}} from [[Tell Taya]] in [[Iraq]]<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Tell Taya (1967): Summary Report |jstor= 4199854 |journal= Iraq |date=1 January 1968 |volume= 30 |issue=2 |pages= 234–264 |doi= 10.2307/4199854 |first= J.E. |last= Reade|s2cid= 162348582 }}</ref> and two [[Bronze Age]] arched [[Canaan]]ite city gates, one at [[Ashkelon]] (dated to {{Circa|1850 BC}}),<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/Around-Israel/Oldest-arched-gate-in-the-world-restored |access-date=21 January 2018 |title= Oldest arched gate in the world restored |first= Etgar |last= Lefkovits |date=8 April 2008 |location= Jerusalem |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130814034938/http://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/Around-Israel/Oldest-arched-gate-in-the-world-restored |archive-date=14 August 2013 |url-status= dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and one at [[Tel Dan]] (dated to {{Circa|1750 BC}}), both in modern-day [[Israel]].<ref name="FinkelsteinMazar2007">{{cite book |author1= Israel Finkelstein |author2= Amihay Mazar |editor= Brian B. Schmidt |title= The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&pg=PA177 |date=2007 |publisher= Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-277-0 |pages=177–}}</ref><ref>Frances, Rosa: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950061812004849 The three-arched middle Bronze Age gate at Tel Dan - A structural investigation of an extraordinary archaeological site], 
retrieved 9 April 2020.</ref> An Elamite tomb dated 1500 BC from [[Haft Tepe|Haft Teppe]] contains a parabolic vault which is considered one of the earliest evidences of arches in Iran.

The use of true arches in Egypt also originated in the [[4th millennium BC]] (underground barrel vaults at the [[Dendera]] cemetery). Standing arches were known since at least the [[Third Dynasty]], but very few examples survived, since the arches were mostly used in non-durable secular buildings and made of [[mud brick]] voussoirs that were not wedge-shaped, but simply held in place by [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]], and thus susceptible to a collapse (the oldest arch still standing is at [[Ramesseum]]). Sacred buildings exhibited either lintel design or corbelled arches. Arches were mostly missing in Egypt temples even after the [[Roman conquest of Egypt|Roman conquest]], even though Egyptians thought of the arch as a spiritual shape and used it in the rock-cut tombs and portable shrines.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Egypt, the Near East and the eastern Mediterranean}} [[Auguste Mariette]] suggested that this choice was based on a relative fragility of a vault: "what would remain of the tombs and temples of Egyptians today, if they had preferred the vault?"<ref name=treccani/>

[[Mycenaean architecture]] utilized only the corbel arches in their [[beehive tombs]] with triangular openings.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Egypt, the Near East and the eastern Mediterranean}} [[Mycenaeans]] had also built probably the oldest still standing{{cn|date=January 2024}} stone-arch bridge in the world, [[Arkadiko Bridge]], in Greece. 

As evidenced by their imitations of the parabolic arches, [[Hittites]] most likely were exposed to the Egyptian designs, but used the corbelled technique to build them.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Egypt, the Near East and the eastern Mediterranean}} 

<gallery>
File:Saqqara - Pyramid of Djoser complex - Heb-sed Court - chapel.JPG|Vaulted building using a decorative segmented arch at the [[Heb-sed court]] in [[Saqqara]] (restored, {{circa}} 2650 [[Anno Domini|BC]])
File:Ramesseum Magazine 03.jpg|A true arch (catenary) at the Ramesseum [[granaries]] ({{circa}} 1300 BC)
File:Kazarma Tholos Tomb 1.JPG|Ruins of the {{ill|Tholosgrab von Kazarma|de|lt=Kazarma tholos tomb}} ({{circa}}1500 BC) showing the Mycenaean beehive technique 
File:Arkadiko Mycenaean Bridge II.JPG|Arkadiko Bridge ({{circa}} 1300-1190 BC): corbel arch, [[cyclopean masonry]]
File:Chatušaš, Královská brána - panoramio.jpg|{{ill|Königstor (Ḫattuša)|de|lt=King's Gate (Hattusa)}} ({{circa}}1400-1200 BC), an imitation of the parabolic arch by [[Hittites]]
</gallery>

===Classical Persia and Greece===
The [[Assyria]]ns, also apparently under the Egyptian influence, adopted the true arch (with a slightly pointed profile) early in the 8th century.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Egypt, the Near East and the eastern Mediterranean}} In [[History of Iran|ancient Persia]], the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (550 BC–330 BC) built small [[barrel vault]]s (essentially a series of arches built together to form a hall) known as ''[[iwan]]'', which became massive, monumental structures during the later [[Parthian Empire]] (247 BC–AD 224).<ref>Brosius, Maria (2006), ''The Persians: An Introduction'', London & New York: Routledge, p. 128, {{ISBN|0-415-32089-5}}.</ref><ref>Garthwaite, Gene Ralph (2005), ''The Persians'', Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd., p. 84, {{ISBN|1-55786-860-3}}.</ref><ref>Schlumberger, Daniel (1983), "Parthian Art", in Yarshater, Ehsan, ''Cambridge History of Iran'', 3.2, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 1049, {{ISBN|0-521-20092-X}}.</ref> This architectural tradition was continued by the [[Sasanian Empire]] (224–651), which built the [[Taq Kasra]] at [[Ctesiphon]] in the 6th century AD, the largest free-standing vault until modern times.<ref>Wright, G. R. H., ''Ancient building technology vol. 3''. Leiden, Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV. 2009. p. 237. Print.</ref>

An early European example of a ''[[voussoir]]'' arch appears in the 4th century BC [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Rhodes Footbridge]].{{sfn |Galliazzo |1995 |p=36}}{{sfn|Boyd|1978|p=91}} Proto-true arches can also be found under the stairs of the [[temple of Apollo at Didyma]] and the [[stadium at Olympia]].{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Greece and Rome}} 
.
<gallery>
File:Gabriel Tranchard-Foto 1853 Khorsabad.jpg|Arch at the excavation in [[Dur-Sharrukin]] ([[Assyrian architecture]], end of 8th century BC, photo taken in 1853)
File:Didyma, Temple of Apollo, Passageway under Temple, Turkey - panoramio.jpg|Vault underneath the temple of Apollo in [[Didyma]], [[Turkey]] (4th century BC)
File:02Στάδιο Αρχαίας Ολυμπίας01.jpg|Arch at the stadium of Olympia (4th century BC)
</gallery>

===Ancient Rome===
The ancient [[Roman architecture|Romans]] learned the [[semicircular arch]] from the [[Etruscans]] (both cultures apparently adopted the design in the 4th century BC{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Greece and Rome}}), refined it and were the first builders in Europe to tap its full potential for above ground buildings:

<blockquote>The Romans were the first builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, to fully appreciate the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome.<ref name="Robertson">{{cite book|last=Robertson|first=D.S.|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/greekromanarchit0000robe/page/231/mode/1up|chapter=Chapter Fifteen: Roman Construction. Arches, Vaults, and Domes|url=https://archive.org/details/greekromanarchit0000robe/page/n4/mode/1up|title=Greek and Roman Architecture|edition=2nd|isbn=0521061040|oclc=1149316661|location=[[Cambridge|Cambridge, England]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1969|page=231|access-date=December 31, 2020|via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref></blockquote>

Throughout the [[Roman Empire]], from [[Syria]] to [[Scotland]], engineers erected arch structures. The first use of arches was for civic structures, like drains and city gates. Later the arches were utilized for major civic buildings [[Roman bridge|bridges]] and [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]], with the outstanding 1st century [[Anno Domini|AD]] examples provided by the [[Colosseum]], [[Pont Du Gard]], and the [[aqueduct of Segovia]].{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Greece and Rome}} The introduction of the ceremonial [[triumphal arch]] dates back to [[Roman Republic]], although the best examples are from the imperial times ([[Arch of Augustus (Susa)|Arch of Augustus]] at Susa, [[Arch of Titus]]).{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Greece and Rome}} 

Romans initially avoided using the arch in the religious buildings and, in Rome, arched temples were quite rare until the recognition of Christianity in 313 AD (with the exceptions provided by the [[Roman Pantheon|Pantheon]] and the [[temple of Minerva Medica (nymphaeum)|"temple of Minerva Medica"]]{{check|date=January 2024}}). Away from the capital, arched temples were more common ({{ill|Hadrianstempel (Ephesos)|de|lt=temple of Hadrian at Ephesus}}, [[Archaeological site of Sbeitla|temple of Jupiter at Sbeitla]], Severan temple at [[Djemila]]).{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Greece and Rome}} Arrival of Christianity prompted creation of the new type of temple, a [[Christian basilica]], that made a thorough break with the pagan tradition with arches as one of the main elements of the design, along with the  exposed brick walls ([[Santa Sabina]] in Rome, [[Sant'Apollinare in Classe]]). For a long period, from the late 5th century to the 20th century, [[Arcade (architecture)|arcade]]s were a standard staple for the Western [[Christian architecture]].{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Ancient Greece and Rome}} 

Vaults began to be used for roofing large interior spaces such as halls and temples, a function that was also assumed by [[List of Roman domes|domed structures]] from the 1st century BC onwards.

The segmental arch was first built by the Romans who realized that an arch in a bridge did not have to be a semicircle,<ref>{{harvnb|Galliazzo|1995|pp=429–437}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Connor|1993|p=171}}</ref> such as in [[Alconétar Bridge]] or [[Ponte San Lorenzo]]. The utilitarian and mass residential ([[Insula (Roman city)|insulae]]) buildings, as found in [[Ostia Antica]] and [[Pompeii]], mostly used low [[segmental arch]]es made of bricks and [[architrave]]s made of wood, while the concrete [[lintel arch]]es can be found in [[Roman villa|villas]] and palaces.{{sfn|DeLaine|1990|p=417}} 
<gallery>
File:Falerii novi.JPG|The Jupiter gate at [[Falerii Novi]] ({{circa}} 300 BC)
File:Acueduct of Segovia.jpg|Arches of the aqueduct at Segovia
File:Laika ac Colosseum (9487556579).jpg|Arches of the Colosseum
File:Arco di Augusto-Susa.jpg|Arch of Augustus, [[Susa, Piedmont]] ({{circa}} 8 BC)
File:Tempio di Minerva Medica 21-09-2019.jpg|Arches at the "temple of Minerva Medica" in Rome
File:The Temple of Hadrian (16127691050).jpg|Temple of Hadrian at Ephesus combines a semicircular arch with the lintels (117 AD)
File:Trois temples 13 - cropped (Temple of Jupiter).png|Temple of Jupiter at [[Sbeitla]] ({{circa}} 150 AD)
File:S Sabina - portico 1000013.JPG|Arches in the [[narthex]] of Santa Sabina, Rome ({{circa}} 425 AD)
File:QDFV Basilica di Sant Apollinare in Classe - Ravenna.jpg|Arches and dome in Sant'Apollinare in Classe (534-536 AD)
File:OstianInsula.JPG|Segmental arches in an Ostian insula
</gallery>

===Ancient China===
[[Chinese architecture|Ancient architecture of China]] (and Japan) used mostly [[timber-framed]] construction and [[trabeated]] system.{{sfn | Lyttleton | 2003 | p=}} Arches were little-used, although there are few [[arch bridge]]s known from literature and one artistic depiction in stone-carved [[relief]].<ref>Needham, Joseph (1986), ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics'', Taipei: Caves Books, pp. 161–188, {{ISBN|0-521-07060-0}}.</ref><ref>Needham, Joseph (1986), ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 2, Mechanical Engineering'', Taipei: Caves Books, pp. 171–172 {{ISBN|0-521-05803-1}}.</ref><ref>Liu, Xujie (2002), "The Qin and Han dynasties", in Steinhardt, Nancy S., ''Chinese Architecture'', New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 56, {{ISBN|0-300-09559-7}}.</ref> Since the only surviving artefacts of architecture from the [[Han dynasty]] (202&nbsp;BC – 220&nbsp;AD) are [[rammed earth]] defensive walls and towers, [[Chinese glazed roof tile|ceramic roof tiles]] from no longer existent wooden buildings,<ref>Wang, Zhongshu (1982), ''Han Civilization'', translated by K.C. Chang and Collaborators, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp. 1, 30, 39–40, {{ISBN|0-300-02723-0}}.</ref><ref>Chang, Chun-shu (2007), ''The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157'', Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 91–92, {{ISBN|0-472-11534-0}}.</ref><ref>Morton, William Scott; Lewis, Charlton M. (2005), ''China: Its History and Culture'' (Fourth ed.), New York City: McGraw-Hill, p. 56, {{ISBN|0-07-141279-4}}.</ref> [[Que (tower)|stone gate towers]],<ref>Liu, Xujie (2002), "The Qin and Han dynasties", in Steinhardt, Nancy S., ''Chinese Architecture'', New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 55, {{ISBN|0-300-09559-7}}.</ref><ref>Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (2005), "Pleasure tower model", in Richard, Naomi Noble, ''Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum, pp. 279–280, {{ISBN|0-300-10797-8}}.</ref> and underground brick tombs, the known vaults, domes, and archways were built with the support of the earth and were not free-standing.<ref>Wang, Zhongshu (1982), ''Han Civilization'', translated by K.C. Chang and Collaborators, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp. 175–178, {{ISBN|0-300-02723-0}}.</ref><ref>Watson, William (2000), ''The Arts of China to AD 900'', New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 108, {{ISBN|0-300-08284-3}}.</ref>

China's oldest surviving stone [[arch bridge]] is the [[Anji Bridge]]. Still in use, it was built between 595 CE and 605 CE during the [[Sui dynasty]].<ref>Knapp, Ronald G. (2008). ''Chinese Bridges: Living Architecture From China's Past''. Singapore: Tuttle Publishing. pp. 122–127. {{ISBN|978-0-8048-3884-9}}.</ref><ref>Needham, Joseph. ''The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China''. Cambridge University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-521-29286-7}}. pp. 145–147.</ref>
<gallery>
File:Anji Bridge, Zhao County, 2020-09-06 05.jpg|Anji Bridge: segmental arch, open-[[spandrel]] design
</gallery>

=== Islamic ===
Islamic architects adopted the Roman arches, but had quickly shown their resourcefulness: by the 8th century the simple semicircular arch was almost entirely replaced with fancier shapes, few fine examples of the former in the [[Umayyad architecture]] notwithstanding (cf. the [[Great Mosque of Damascus]], 706–715 CE). The first [[pointed arch]]es appear already at the end of the 7th century AD ([[Al-Aqsa Mosque]], [[Palace of Ukhaidhir]], [[cisterns]] at the [[White Mosque of Ramle]]{{sfn|Saoud|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Graves|2009}}). Their variations spread fast and wide: [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]] in Cairo (876-879 AD), Nizamiyya Madrasa at [[Khar Gerd]] (now [[Iran]], 11th century), Kongo Mosque in [[Diani Beach]] ([[Kenya]], 16th century).{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc= Indian subcontinent and Islamic lands }}{{sfn|Graves|2009}}

Islamic architecture brought to life a large amount of arch forms: the round [[horseshoe arch]] that became a characteristic trait of the Islamic buildings, the [[keel arch]], the [[cusped arch]],  and the [[mixed-line arch]] (where the curved "ogee swell" is interspersed with abrupt bends).{{sfn|Graves|2009}} The [[Great Mosque of Cordoba]], that can be considered a catalogue of Islamic arches, contains also the arches with almost straight sides, [[trefoil arch|trefoil]], [[interlaced arches|interlaced]], and [[joggled arch|joggled]]. Mosque of Ibn Tulun adds [[four-centred arch|four-centred]] and [[stilted arch|stilted]] version of the pointed arch.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc= Indian subcontinent and Islamic lands }}  

It is quite likely that the appearance of the pointed arch, an essential element of the [[Gothic style]], in Europe ([[Monte Cassino]], 1066–1071 AD, and the [[Cluny Abbey]] five years later) and the [[ogee arch]] in Venice ({{circa}} 1250) is a result of the Islamic influence,{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc= Indian subcontinent and Islamic lands }}  possibly through [[Sicily]].{{sfn|Saoud|2002|p=7}} Saoud{{sfn|Saoud|2002|p=4}} also credits to Islamic architects the spread of the [[transverse arch]]. Mixed-line arch became popular in the [[Mudéjar style]] and subsequently spread around the Spanish-speaking world.{{sfn | Martinez Nespral | 2023 | p=15}}

<gallery>
File:CSC 0117 (5299538961).jpg|Semicircular arches at the Umayyad mosque
File:Cisterns of the White Mosque, Ramla IMG 5271.JPG|Pointed arches in the cisterns of the White Mosque in [[Ramla]]
File:Cordoue - Mosquée - arcature 2.JPG|Trefoil arches at the Cordoba Mosque
File:CordobaMezquita01.jpg|Interlaced arches at the Cordoba Mosque
File:Cordoue - Mosquée - arcature.JPG|Horseshoe arches at the Cordoba Mosque
File:Córdoba 2014.06.jpg|Ogee arch at the Cordoba Mosque
File:Detalle de la Puerta del Perdón - Mezquita de Córdoba.jpg|Cusped arhes at the Cordoba Mosque
File:Mixed line arches.png|Mixed line arches at [[Palacio de Torre Tagle]], Lima, Peru (1735)
</gallery>

=== Western Europe ===
The collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]] left the church as the only client of major construction; with all [[pre-Romanesque]] architectural styles borrowing from Roman construction with its semicircular arch. Due to the decline in the construction quality, the walls were thicker, and the arches thus heavier, than their Roman prototypes. Eventually the architects started to use the depth of the arches for decoration, turning the deep opening into [[recessed orders]] (or ''rebated arch'', a sequence of progressively smaller concentric arches, each inset with a [[Rebate (architecture)|rebate]]).{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Western Europe and its influence }} 

[[Romanesque style]] started experiments with the [[pointed arch]] late in the 11th century ([[Cluny Abbey]]). In few decades, the practice spread ([[Durham Cathedral]], [[Basilica of Saint-Denis]]). [[Early Gothic]] utilized the flexibility of the pointed arch by grouping together arches of different [[span (engineering)|spans]] but with the same height.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Western Europe and its influence }} 

While the arches used in the mediaeval Europe were borrowed from the Roman and Islamic architecture, the use of pointed arch to form the [[rib vault]] was novel and became the defining characteristic of Gothic construction. At about 1400 AD, the city-states of Italy, where the pointed arch had never gotten much traction, initiated the revival of the Roman style with its round arches, [[Renaissance]]. By the 16th century the new style spread across Europe and, through the influence of empires, to the rest of the world. Arch became a dominant architectural form until the introduction of the new construction materials, like steel and concrete.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Western Europe and its influence }}

===India===
The history of arch in India is very long (some arches were apparently found in excavations of [[Kosambi]], [[2nd millennium BC]]. However, the continuous history begins with rock-cut arches in the [[Lomas Rishi]] cave (3rd century BC).{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Indian subcontinent and Islamic lands}} Vaulted roof of an early [[Harappan architecture|Harappan]] burial chamber has been noted at [[Rakhigarhi]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&q=vaulting+rakhigarhi+burial&pg=PA293|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|date=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|pages=293|language=en}}</ref> [[Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao|S.R Rao]] reports vaulted roof of a small chamber in a house from [[Lothal]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rao|first1=Shikaripur Ranganatha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmRuAAAAMAAJ&q=vaulted+roof+lothal|title=Lothal and the Indus Civilization|last2=Rao|first2=Calyampudi Radhakrishna|date=1973|publisher=Asia Publishing House|isbn=978-0-210-22278-2|pages=77|language=en}}</ref> Barrel vaults were also used in the Late Harappan [[Cemetery H culture]] dated 1900 BC-1300 BC which formed the roof of the metal working furnace, the discovery was made by [[Madho Sarup Vats|Vats]] in 1940 during excavation at Harappa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tripathi|first=Vibha|date=27 February 2018|title=METALS AND METALLURGY IN THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION|url=https://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol53_3_2018__Art04.pdf|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|pages=279–295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kenoyer|first1=J.M|title=Summaries of Five Seasons of Research at Harappa (District Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan) 1986-1990|last2=Dales|first2=G. F.|publisher=Prehistory Press|pages=185–262}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kenoyer|first1=J.M.|url=https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Kenoyer1999_Metal%20Technologies%20of%20the%20Indus%20Valley%20Tradition.pdf|title=Metal Technologies of the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western India|last2=Miller|first2=Heather M..L.|pages=124}}</ref>

The use of arches until the [[Islamic conquest of India]] in the 12th century [[Anno Domini|AD]] was sporadic, with [[ogee arch]]es and barrel vaults in rock-cut temples ([[Karla Caves]], from the 1st century BC) and decorative pointed [[gavaksha]] arches. By the 5th century AD voussoir vaults were used structurally in the brick construction. Surviving examples include the temple at [[Bhitargaon]] (5th century AD) and [[Mahabodhi Temple]] (7th century AD), the latter has both [[pointed arch]]es and [[semicircular arch]]es.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Indian subcontinent and Islamic lands}}<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC&pg=PA9 |title= Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|last=Chihara|first=Daigorō|date=1996|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10512-6|language=en|via=[[Google Books]]|access-date=1 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702133648/https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9#v=onepage&f=false|archive-date=2 July 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> These [[Gupta era]] arch vault system was later used extensively in Burmese Buddhist temples in [[Pyu city-states|Pyu]] and [[Bagan]] in 11th and 12th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&q=mahabodhi+temple+arch+cunningham&pg=PA246|title=Buddhist Architecture|last=Le|first=Huu Phuoc|date=2010|publisher=Grafikol|isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402035917/https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA246&lpg=PA246&dq=mahabodhi+temple+arch+cunningham&source=bl&ots=4LRbyTbhCW&sig=iulZK4o-Sl5QgoLF439H3kqO2E8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkp_2PjpraAhUN2o8KHRlZBE8Q6AEIfTAO#v=onepage&q=mahabodhi%20temple%20arch%20cunningham&f=false|archive-date=2 April 2018|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

With the arrival of Islamic and other [[Western Asia]] influence, the arches became prominent in the Indian architecture, although the [[post and lintel]] construction was still preferred. A variety of pointed and lobed arches was characteristic for the [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], with the monumental example of [[Buland Darwaza]], that has pointed arch decorated with small [[cusped arch]]es.{{sfn | Woodman | Bloom | 2003 | loc=Indian subcontinent and Islamic lands}} 

<gallery>
File:Barabar Caves inside Lomas Rishi cave.jpg|The insides of the Lomas Rishi cave
File:029 Chaitya and Roof (33563756881).jpg|Arches at Karle ([[Karla Caves|Great Chaitya]], 1st century AD)
File:Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad s-7.jpg|Decorative ogee arches (gavaksha) in [[Ajanta Caves]]
File:Inner sanctum of Mahabodhi temple at Bodhgaya in Bihar. 07.jpg|Pointed vault at the Mahabodhi temple
File:Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010-color change.jpg|Arches at Buland Darwaza (16th century AD)
</gallery>

=== Pre-Columbian America ===
[[Mayan architecture]] utilized the corbel arches. The other [[Mesoamerican cultures]] used only the flat roofs with no arches whatsoever,{{sfn|Quirarte|1989|p=47}} although some researchers had suggested that both Maya and [[Aztec architecture|Aztec]] architects understood the concept of a true arch.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Befu | first1=Harumi | last2=Ekholm | first2=Gordon F. | title=The True Arch in Pre-Columbian America? | journal=Current Anthropology | volume=5 | issue=4 | date=1964 | issn=0011-3204 | doi=10.1086/200506 | pages=328–329 | s2cid=145134147 | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/200506?journalCode=ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Schwerin | first1=Karl H. | last2=Ekholm | first2=Gordon F. | title=On the Arch in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica | journal=Current Anthropology | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=1966 | issn=0011-3204 | doi=10.1086/200668 | pages=89–90 | s2cid=144301211 | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/200668?journalCode=ca }}</ref>

=== Revival of the trabeated system ===
The 19th-century introduction of the [[wrought iron]] (and later [[steel]]) into construction changed the role of the arch. Due to the high [[tensile strength]] of new materials, relatively long lintels became possible, as was demonstrated  by the [[Tubular bridge|tubular]] [[Britannia Bridge]] ([[Robert Stephenson]], 1846-1850). A fervent proponent of the [[trabeated]] system, [[Alexander "Greek" Thomson]], whose preference for [[lintel]]s was originally based on aesthetic criteria, observed that the [[span (engineering)|spans]] of this bridge are longer than that of any arch ever built, thus "the simple, unsophisticated stone lintel contains in its structure all the scientific appliances [...] used in the great tubular bridge. [...] [[Stonehenge]] is more scientifically constructed than [[York Minster]]."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stamp |first=Gavin |title="At Once Classic and Picturesque...": Alexander Thomson's Holmwood |journal=The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=57 |number=1 |date=March 1998 |doi=10.2307/991404 |jstor=991404 |pages=46–58}}</ref> Use of arches in bridge construction continued (the Britannia Bridge was rebuilt in 1972 as a [[truss arch bridge]]), yet the [[steel frame]]s and [[reinforced concrete frame]]s mostly replaced the arches as the load-bearing elements in buildings.
<gallery>
File:Britanniabruecke Postkarte coloriert2.jpg|Original Britannia bridge (a colored postcard)
File:Pont Britannia - geograph.org.uk - 692277.jpg|Britannia bridge (2008)
</gallery>