Editing Adolescence (section)

===Identity development===
Identity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle.<ref name="Kroger, J. 1996 pp. 40-46">Kroger, J. (1996). ''The Balance Between Self and Other''. (pp. 40–46). New York CityA. [[Routledge]]</ref> For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years, adolescents are more open to 'trying on' different behaviours and appearances to discover who they are.<ref name="Strasburger, V.C. 2014 pp. 11-19">{{cite book |last1=Strasburger |first1=V.C. |last2=Wilson |first2=B.J. |last3=Jordan |first3=A.B. |year=2014 |chapter=Children and Adolescents: Unique Audiences |title=Children, Adolescents, and the Media |pages=11–19 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] }}{{isbn missing}}</ref> In an attempt to find their identity and discover who they are, adolescents are likely to cycle through a number of identities to find one that suits them best. Developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years) is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and social status.<ref name="Kroger, J. 1996 pp. 40-46"/> Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as [[Identity formation|identity development]], rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. New York, NY: [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> The two main aspects of identity development are self-clarity and self-esteem.<ref name="Strasburger, V.C. 2014 pp. 11-19"/> Since choices made during adolescent years can influence later life, high levels of self-awareness and self-control during mid-adolescence will lead to better decisions during the transition to adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arain |first1=Mariam |last2=Haque |first2=Maliha |last3=Johal |first3=Lina |last4=Mathur |first4=Puja |last5=Nel |first5=Wynand |last6=Rais |first6=Afsha |last7=Sandhu |first7=Ranbir |last8=Sharma |first8=Sushil |title=Maturation of the adolescent brain |journal=Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat |date= Apr 3, 2013|volume=9 |pages=449–461 |doi=10.2147/NDT.S39776 |pmid=23579318 |pmc=3621648 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991).<ref name="psychtoday"/> The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. Studies done by the [[American Psychological Association]] have shown that adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more difficult time developing their identity.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment">[[American Psychological Association]] (APA). [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]].</ref>

====Self-concept====
{{See also|Self-concept}}
The idea of self-concept is known as the ability of a person to have opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistent and stable.<ref name="Valkenburg & Peter 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Valkenburg |first1=Patti M. |last2=Peter |first2=Jochen |title=Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |date=February 2011 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=121–127 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.020 |pmid=21257109 |s2cid=205650071 }}</ref> Early in adolescence, [[cognitive development]]s result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves by physical traits whereas adolescents define themselves based on their values, thoughts, and opinions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Psychology: the science of behaviour|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Education Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref>

Adolescents can conceptualize multiple "possible selves" that they could become<ref name="Markus1986">{{cite journal|author1=Markus H. |author2=Nurius P. |year = 1986 | title = Possible selves|journal = American Psychologist|volume = 41|issue = 9| pages = 954–969 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954 |s2cid=550525 }}</ref> and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780471726746.ch4 |chapter=Socialization and Self-Development: Channeling, Selection, Adjustment, and Reflection |title=Handbook of Adolescent Psychology |year=2004 |last1=Nurmi |first1=Jari-Erik |pages=85–124 |isbn=978-0-471-20948-5 }}</ref> Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the [[self-discrepancy theory#Actual|actual]] self toward the [[self-discrepancy theory#Ideal|ideal]] self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.<ref name="Markus1986" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oyserman |first1=Daphna |last2=Markus |first2=Hazel R. |title=Possible selves and delinquency |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=1990 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.112 |pmid=2213484 }}</ref>

Further distinctions in self-concept, called "differentiation," occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves.<ref name="Harter, S. 1999">Harter, S. (1999). ''The construction of the self''. New York: Guilford Press.{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref> Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Herbert W. |title=Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early adulthood |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |date=September 1989 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=417–430 |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.417 }}</ref> Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the [[personality traits]] adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years (see [[Cognitive dissonance]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harter |first1=Susan |last2=Monsour |first2=Ann |title=Development analysis of conflict caused by opposing attributes in the adolescent self-portrait. |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=March 1992 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=251–260 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.251 }}</ref> but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.

====Sense of identity====
[[Egocentrism]] in adolescents forms a self-conscious desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance.<ref>Carlson, N. R., & Heth, C. (2010).</ref> Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas [[Erik Erikson]] argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson's theory of [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|stages of development]] includes the [[identity crisis]] in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of "identity achievement" but also stressed that the identity challenge "is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time".<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 287. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their [[Crowds (adolescence)|crowd membership]]. "Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers." Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers "finding their selves"; Fashion is always evolving, which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers.<ref>"You're Wearing That?" by Stacey Schultz. U.S. News & World Report Special Issue</ref> Adolescents attempt to define their identity by consciously styling themselves in different manners to find what best suits them. Trial and error in matching both their perceived image and the image others respond to and see, allows for the adolescent to grasp an understanding of who they are.<ref name="Rawlins">{{Citation |last=Rawlins |first=W.K. |title= Friendship matters: Communication, dialectics, and life course |publisher= Aldine de Gruyter |place= New York |year= 1992}}</ref>

Just as fashion is evolving to influence adolescents so is the media. "Modern life takes place amidst a never-ending barrage of flesh on screens, pages, and billboards."<ref>"The Media Assault on Male Body Image" by Brandon Klein. Seed Magazine.</ref> This barrage consciously or subconsciously registers into the mind causing issues with self-image a factor that contributes to an adolescence sense of identity. Researcher James Marcia developed the current method for testing an individual's progress along these stages.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Marcia J | s2cid = 29342469 | year = 1966 | title = Development and validation of ego identity status | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 551–558 | doi = 10.1037/h0023281 | pmid = 5939604 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Marcia J | s2cid = 29342469 | year = 1976 | title = Identity six years after: A follow-up study | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 551–558 | pmid = 5939604 | doi=10.1037/h0023281}}</ref> His questions are divided into three categories: occupation, ideology, and [[interpersonal relationship]]s. Answers are scored based on the extent to which the individual has explored and the degree to which he has made commitments. The result is classification of the individual into a) identity diffusion in which all children begin, b) Identity Foreclosure in which commitments are made without the exploration of alternatives, c) Moratorium, or the process of exploration, or d) Identity Achievement in which Moratorium has occurred and resulted in commitments.<ref name="ReferenceA">Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 286. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>

Research since reveals self-examination beginning early in adolescence, but identity achievement rarely occurring before age 18.<ref>Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology'', pp.&nbsp;159–187. New York: Wiley.</ref> The freshman year of college influences identity development significantly, but may actually prolong psychosocial moratorium by encouraging reexamination of previous commitments and further exploration of alternate possibilities without encouraging resolution.<ref>Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. (1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto.{{verify source|did this ever get published? Or did the published title change?|date=October 2022}}</ref> For the most part, evidence has supported Erikson's stages: each correlates with the personality traits he originally predicted.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Studies also confirm the impermanence of the stages; there is no final endpoint in identity development.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 288. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>

====Environment and identity====
An adolescent's environment plays a huge role in their identity development.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/> While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies show that the more privileged upbringing people have, the more successfully they develop their identity.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/> The forming of an adolescent's identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This, therefore, has caused various factors to become important during this development.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Furstenberg|first=Frank F.|title=The Sociology of Adolescence and Youth in the 1990s: A Critical Commentary|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|date=November 2000|volume=62|issue=4|pages=896–910|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00896.x}}</ref> So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices,<ref>How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. ''Journal of Early Adolescence''.</ref> to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up in. A child from a more privileged upbringing is exposed to more opportunities and better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime-driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development. Adolescence is a sensitive period in the development process, and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major effect on future decisions. While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/>

====Sexual orientation and identity====
[[Sexual orientation]] has been defined as "an erotic inclination toward people of one or more genders, most often described as sexual or erotic attractions".<ref name="Saewyc">{{cite journal|last=Saewyc|first=E.M.|title=Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation: Development, Health Disparities, Stigma, and Resilience|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|year=2011|volume=21|issue=1|pages=256–272|doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x|pmid=27099454|pmc=4835230}}</ref> In recent years, psychologists have sought to understand how sexual orientation develops during adolescence. Some theorists believe that there are many different possible developmental paths one could take, and that the specific path an individual follows may be determined by their sex, orientation, and when they reached the onset of puberty.<ref name="Saewyc"/>

In 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Troiden|first=R. R.|title=The formation of homosexual identities|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|year=1989|volume=17|pages=43–73|doi=10.1300/J082v17n01_02|pmid=2668403|issue=1–2}}</ref> The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage in sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Floyd|first=Frank J.|author2=Stein, Terry S.|title=Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|year=2002|volume=12|issue=2|pages=167–191|doi=10.1111/1532-7795.00030}}</ref> In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.

In terms of [[sexual identity]], adolescence is when most gay/lesbian and [[transgender youth|transgender]] adolescents begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Many adolescents may choose to [[coming out|come out]] during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of [[Questioning (sexuality and gender)|questioning]] or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences.<ref name="Morrow 2004 91–99">{{cite journal|last=Morrow|first=Deana|title=Social work practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adolescents|journal=Families in Society|date=Jan–Mar 2004|volume=85|issue=1|pages=91–99|doi=10.1606/1044-3894.246|s2cid=144872473}}</ref> A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|last=D'Augelli|first=Anthony|author2=Scott Hershberger|title=Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems|journal=American Journal of Community Psychology|year=1993|volume=21|issue=4|pages=421–448|doi=10.1007/BF00942151|pmid=8192119|s2cid=39475366}}</ref> Coming to terms with and creating a positive [[LGBT]] identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or [[gender identity]] are surrounded by [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.<ref name="Morrow 2004 91–99"/> Because of this, statistically the [[suicide rate]] amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gaylife.about.com/od/gayteens/a/gaysuicide.htm |title=Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning Teen Suicide Statistics – Gay Teen Suicide Statistics |publisher=Gaylife.about.com |date=April 9, 2012 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208075811/http://gaylife.about.com/od/gayteens/a/gaysuicide.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Self-esteem====
The final major aspect of identity formation is [[self-esteem]]. Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marmot |first1=Michael |title=Self esteem and health |journal=BMJ |date=13 September 2003 |volume=327 |issue=7415 |pages=574–575 |doi=10.1136/bmj.327.7415.574 |pmid=12969900 |pmc=194072 }}</ref> Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem.<ref name="Valkenburg & Peter 2011"/> Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 270. New York, NY: [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.<ref>Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), ''Psychological perspectives on the self'', Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref> The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 273. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>
Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. Girls suffer from low self-esteem when they fail to win friends' approval or cannot find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority.<ref>"Psychology: The Science of Behaviour" 3rd Canadian Edition</ref><!--citation is inadequately specific e.g. author etc--> As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. Due to the fact that both men and women happen to have a low self-esteem after ending a romantic relationship, they are prone to other symptoms that is caused by this state. Depression and hopelessness are only two of the various symptoms and it is said that women are twice as likely to experience depression and men are three to four times more likely to commit suicide (Mearns, 1991; Ustun & Sartorius, 1995).<ref>Osvelia Deeds, Jeannette Delgado, Miguel Diego, Tiffany Field, and Martha Pelaez (2009). "Adolescence".</ref>