Editing Abraham Lincoln (section)

==Presidency (1861–1865)==
{{Multiple image|total_width=500px|image1=Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Abraham_Lincoln's_First_Inauguration.jpg|alt1=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars.|caption1=[[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|Lincoln's first inaugural]] at the [[United States Capitol]] on March 4, 1861 with the [[United States Capitol dome|Capitol dome]] above the rotunda still under construction.|image2=18610304 Affairs of the Nation - Abraham Lincoln inauguration - The New York Times.jpg|caption2=Headlines in ''[[The New York Times]]'' following Lincoln's first inauguration portended imminent hostilities.}}
{{Main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln}}

===First term===
====Secession and inauguration====
{{Main|Presidential transition of Abraham Lincoln}}
{{Further|Secession winter|Baltimore Plot}}

The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861.{{sfn|Edgar|1998|p=350}}<ref name=anb/> On December 20, 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had followed.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|Potter|1977|p2=498}} Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]], selecting [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional president.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|White|2009|2p=369}} The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal.{{sfn|White|2009|p=362}} President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.{{sfn|Potter|1977|pp=520, 569–570}} On February 11, 1861, Lincoln gave a particularly emotional [[Abraham Lincoln's farewell address|farewell address]] upon leaving Springfield for Washington.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 1 p. 759}}

Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed [[Crittenden Compromise]] as contrary to the party's platform of free-soil in the [[Territories of the United States|territories]].{{sfn|White|2009|pp=360–361}} Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent&nbsp;... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=268}} Lincoln supported the [[Corwin Amendment]] to the [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]], which would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. The amendment passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the required three-fourths of the states when Lincoln took office, whereupon Southern states began to secede.{{sfnm|Vorenberg|2001|1p=22|Vile|2003|2pp=280–281}} On March 4, 1861, in his [[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|first inaugural address]], Lincoln said that, because he held "such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express, and irrevocable".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 48}}

[[File:Lincoln LadyPNG.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Lincoln was mocked by opposition papers falsely claiming that he snuck into Washington in disguise after the 1860 election.]]

Due to secessionist plots, Lincoln and his train received careful attention to security. The president-elect evaded suspected [[Baltimore Plot|assassins in Baltimore]]. He traveled in disguise, wearing a soft felt hat instead of his customary [[stovepipe hat]] and draping an overcoat over his shoulders while hunching to conceal his height. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in Washington, D.C., which was placed under military guard. Many in the opposition press criticized his secretive journey; opposition newspapers mocked Lincoln with caricatures showing him sneaking into the capital.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=273–279|Burlingame|2008|2loc=v. 2 pp. 32&ndash;39}} Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states:

{{Blockquote|Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States, that by the accession of a Republican Administration, their property, and their peace, and personal security, are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed, and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."|[[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|First inaugural address]], 4 March 1861{{sfnm|Sandburg|2002|1p=212|Lincoln|1953|2p=333}}|source=}} The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends.... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=283–284}} The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=268, 279}}

====Personnel====
{{Main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln#Foreign policy|Diplomacy of the American Civil War}}
{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
| Name = Lincoln
| President = Abraham Lincoln
| President date = 1861–1865
| Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]]
| Vice President date = 1861–1865
| Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]]
| Vice President date 2 = 1865
| State = [[William H. Seward]]
| State date = 1861–1865
| Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]]
| Treasury date = 1861–1864
| Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]]
| Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865
| Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]]
| Treasury date 3 = 1865
| War = [[Simon Cameron]]
| War date = 1861–1862
| War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]]
| War date 2 = 1862–1865
| Justice = [[Edward Bates]]
| Justice date = 1861–1864
| Justice 2 = [[James Speed]]
| Justice date 2 = 1864–1865
| Post = [[Montgomery Blair]]
| Post date = 1861–1864
| Post 2 = [[William Dennison Jr.]]
| Post date 2 = 1864–1865
| Navy = [[Gideon Welles]]
| Navy date = 1861–1865
| Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]]
| Interior date = 1861–1862
| Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]]
| Interior date 2 = 1863–1865

| source =<ref>{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/lincoln/abraham-lincoln-administration|publisher=Miller Center, University of Virginia|title=Abraham Lincoln: administration|date=December 16, 2016 }}</ref>
}}

In the selection and use of his cabinet Lincoln employed the strengths of his rivals in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services."{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=319}} Goodwin described the group in her biography of Lincoln as a ''[[Team of Rivals]]''.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005}} Lincoln named his main political opponent, William H. Seward, as Secretary of State.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 1 p. 722}} However, Lincoln quickly appointed some top diplomats directly "to counteract Confederate efforts at gaining recognition from European nations".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 93}}

Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}} Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] was against slavery and a prominent corporate lawyer.{{sfn|Silver|1998|p=59}} [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] was an avowed abolitionist and received widespread support from Iowa politicians.{{sfn|Silver|1998|pp=64&ndash;65}} David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced.{{sfn|Silver|1998|p=74}} Democrat [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance.{{sfn|Silver|1998|pp=88&ndash;89}} Finally, Lincoln appointed his Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, as Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist who would support Reconstruction legislation and that his appointment would unite the Republican Party.{{sfn|Blue|1987|p=245}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Supreme Court Justices<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/nominations/SupremeCourtNominations1789present.htm|publisher=United States Senate|accessdate=April 26, 2025|title=Supreme Court nominations (1789&ndash;present)}}</ref>
!Justice
!Nominated
!Appointed
|-
|[[Noah Haynes Swayne]]
|January 21, 1862
|January 24, 1862
|-
|[[Samuel Freeman Miller]]
|July 16, 1862
|July 16, 1862
|-
|[[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]]
|December 1, 1862
|December 8, 1862
|-
|[[Stephen Johnson Field]]
|March 6, 1863
|March 10, 1863
|-
|[[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] (Chief Justice)
|December 6, 1864
|December 6, 1864
|}

====Commander-in-Chief====
{{Main|American Civil War|Battle of Fort Sumter}}
[[File:Abraham Lincoln - NARA - 528325.jpg|thumb|alt=President Abraham Lincoln in 1862|Portrait of Lincoln {{circa}} 1862]]

In early April 1861, [[Robert Anderson (Union officer)|Major Robert Anderson]], commander of [[Fort Sumter]] in Charleston, South Carolina, advised that he was nearly out of food. After considerable debate, Lincoln decided to send provisions; he "could not be sure that his decision would precipitate a war, though he had good reason to believe that it might".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 100&ndash;124}} On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces [[Battle of Fort Sumter|fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter]].{{sfn|McClintock|2008|pp=246&ndash;250}} Donald concludes: <blockquote>His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Fort Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he had also vowed not to surrender the forts.... The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the Confederates to fire the first shot.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=293}}</blockquote>

On April 15, [[Proclamation 80|Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen]] to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union". This call forced states to choose whether to secede or to support the Union. North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied the North to defend the nation.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 134&ndash;138, 154&ndash;155}} As states sent regiments south, on April 19 Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by [[Maryland in the American Civil War#Imposition of martial law|arresting local Maryland officials]]. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]'', allowing arrests without charges.{{sfnm|1a1=Heidler|1a2=Heidler|1a3=Coles|1y=2002|1p=174|2a1=Burlingame|2y=2008|2loc=v. 2 pp. 141, 146&ndash;151}}

[[John Merryman]], a Maryland officer arrested for hindering U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] to issue [[Habeas corpus in the United States|a writ of ''habeas corpus'']]. In June, in ''[[Ex parte Merryman]]'', Taney, not ruling on behalf of the Supreme Court,{{efn|"One significant point of disagreement among historians and political scientists is whether Roger Taney heard ''Ex parte Merryman'' as a U.S. circuit judge or as a Supreme Court justice in chambers."<ref>{{harvnb|White|2011 |pp=38–39}}</ref>}} issued the writ, believing that the Constitution authorized only Congress and not the president to suspend it.{{efn|Article I, section 9, clause 2 provides that the writ of habeas corpus may be suspended in cases of rebellion, but it does not state who may suspend it.}} But Lincoln engaged in [[nonacquiescence]] and persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas.{{sfn|Harris|2011|pp=59–71}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Neely|first=Mark E. Jr.|author-link=Mark E. Neely Jr.|year=2004|title=Was the Civil War a total war?|journal=Civil War History|volume=50 |issue=4|pages=434–458|doi=10.1353/cwh.2004.0073}}</ref> Under the suspension, 15,000 civilians were detained without trial; several, including the [[Copperhead (politics)|Copperhead]] leader [[Clement L. Vallandigham]], were tried in military courts for "treasonable" actions, an approach which was highly criticized.<ref name=anb/>

====Early Union military strategy====
{{Main|Eastern theater of the American Civil War|Western theater of the American Civil War}}
{{Further|Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War|Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War}}
Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as [[commander-in-chief]] by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended ''habeas corpus'', and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=302–304|Carwardine|2003|2pp=163–164}} It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle. [[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]] (anti-war Democrats) criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery; the [[Radical Republicans]] (who demanded harsh treatment against secession) criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=315–339, 417}} On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861]], which authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=314|Carwardine|2003|2p=178}}

[[File:RunningtheMachine-LincAdmin.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of men sitting at a table as another man creates money on a wooden machine.|''Running the Machine'', an 1864 political cartoon satirizing Lincoln and his administration, including [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], and [[Gideon Welles]].]]

Lincoln's war strategy had two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory.{{efn|Major Northern newspapers, however, predicted victory within 90 days.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=295–296}}}} Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet. Occasionally, Lincoln's wife, Mary, prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=391–392}}  Lincoln selected civilian generals from varied political and ethnic backgrounds "to secure their and their constituents' support for the war effort and ensure that the war became a national struggle".{{sfn|Work|2024|p=2}} In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]] Simon Cameron with [[Edwin Stanton]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 240&ndash;244}} Stanton worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than did any other senior official. According to Stanton's biographers Benjamin Thomas and Harold Hyman, "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together".{{sfn|Thomas|Hyman|1962|pp= 71, 87, 229–230, 385}}

For his edification Lincoln relied on a book by his chief of staff General [[Henry Halleck]], ''Elements of Military Art and Science''. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the [[Mississippi River]].{{sfn|Ambrose|1996|pp=7, 66, 159}} Lincoln saw the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than merely capturing territory.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=432–436}} In directing the Union's war strategy, Lincoln valued the advice of [[Winfield Scott]], even after his retirement as [[Commanding General of the United States Army]]. In June 1862, Lincoln made an unannounced visit to [[United States Military Academy|West Point]], where he spent five hours consulting with Scott regarding the handling of the war.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=v. 2 p. 320|Marvel|2008|2p=68}}

Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=213–214}} He relied on his combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] chairman [[Charles Sumner]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=321&ndash;322}} In 1861 the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys. Although the North celebrated the seizure, Britain protested vehemently, and the [[Trent Affair]] threatened war between the Americans and the British. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 222&ndash;227}}

====General McClellan====

[[File:Maryland, Antietam, President Lincoln on the Battlefield - NARA - 533297.jpg|alt=Lincoln among a group of soldiers in a military camp|thumb|Lincoln meeting with [[Union Army]] officers on October 3, 1862, following the [[Battle of Antietam]], including left to right: Col. [[Delos Bennett Sackett|Delos Sackett]]; 4. Gen. [[George W. Morell]]; 5. [[Alexander S. Webb]], Chief of Staff, V Corps; 6. McClellan;. 8. [[Jonathan Letterman]]; 10. Lincoln; 11. [[Henry J. Hunt]]; 12. [[Fitz John Porter]]; 15. [[Andrew A. Humphreys]]; 16. Capt. [[George Armstrong Custer]]]]
{{main|George B. McClellan}}

After the Union rout at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]] and [[Winfield Scott]]'s retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=318–319}} McClellan spent months planning his Virginia [[Peninsula Campaign]]. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capital.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=349–352}} In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief for the general's continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck to the post and appointed [[John Pope (general)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 303, 320, 368}} But in the summer of 1862 Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], forcing him to retreat to Washington. Soon after, the Army of Virginia was disbanded.{{sfn|Work|2024|p=71}}

Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington, which included both the [[Army of the Potomac]] and the remains of the Army of Virginia.{{sfnm|Goodwin|2005|1pp=478–479|Work|2024|2p=71}} Two days later, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=478–480}} That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=481}} A crisis of command occurred for Lincoln when McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]] and McClellan with [[Ambrose Burnside]]. The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=389–390}} Against presidential advice Burnside launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was [[Battle of Fredericksburg|defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg]] in December.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 445&ndash;446}} Facing low morale and discontent among the troops, Lincoln replaced Burnside with [[Joseph Hooker]].{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=v. 2 pp. 484&ndash;486|Donald|1996|2pp=411–412}} Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May, then resigned in June and was replaced by [[George Meade]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 498, 503, 510&ndash;511}} Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and defeated him in the [[Gettysburg campaign]] but then failed to effectively block Lee's orderly retreat to Virginia, despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=444–447}}

====Emancipation Proclamation====
{{Main|Abraham Lincoln and slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}}

<imagemap>
File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln]]'', an 1864 portrait by [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]]<small>'' (clickable image—use cursor to identify)''</small>|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.

poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 [[Edwin M. Stanton|Edwin Stanton]]
poly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Chase]]
poly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 [[Abraham Lincoln]]
poly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 [[Gideon Welles]]
poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 [[William H. Seward|William Seward]]
poly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 [[Caleb Blood Smith|Caleb Smith]]
poly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 [[Montgomery Blair]]
poly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 [[Edward Bates]]
poly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 [[Emancipation Proclamation]]
poly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 [[Simon Cameron|Portrait of Simon Cameron]]
poly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 [[Andrew Jackson|Portrait of Andrew Jackson]]
</imagemap>

Before Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, two Union generals issued their own emancipation orders, but Lincoln overrode both: he found that the decision to emancipate was not within the generals' power, and that it might upset loyal border states enough for them to secede.{{sfn|Guelzo|1999|pp=290–291}} However, in June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery in all federal territories, which Lincoln signed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://exhibits.lib.utah.edu/s/this-abominable-slavery/page/7_1_ab|title=The United States Congress outlaws slavery and involuntary servitude in all U.S. territories, June 20, 1862|accessdate=April 28, 2025|work=This Abominable Slavery|publisher=University of Utah}}</ref> In July, the [[Confiscation Act of 1862]] was enacted.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 357}} Its section 9 freed slaves "within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States". On July 22, 1862, Lincoln reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=364–365}} Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification, but Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''[[New-York Tribune]]'', in his public letter, "The Prayer of Twenty Millions", implored Lincoln to embrace emancipation.{{sfnm|McPherson|1992|1p=124|Lundberg|2019|2p=116}} In a public letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln replied to Greeley, writing that while he personally wished all men could be free, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union:{{sfn|Guelzo|2004|pp=147–153}}

{{Blockquote|My paramount object in this struggle ''is'' to save the Union, and is ''not'' either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing ''any'' slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing ''all'' the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that.<ref name=anb/>}}

On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 468&ndash;469}} freeing the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=Emancipation Proclamation (1863)|date=August 16, 2021 |publisher=National Archives}}</ref> with exemptions specified for areas under such control.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=379}} Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=407}} On New Year's Eve in 1862, Black people – enslaved and free – gathered across the United States to hold Watch Night ceremonies for "Freedom's Eve", looking toward the promised fulfillment of the Proclamation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 19, 2019 |title=The historical legacy of Juneteenth |url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/historical-legacy-juneteenth |publisher=National Museum of African American History and Culture}}</ref> With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south "enable[d] thousands of slaves to escape to freedom".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McPherson |first1=James M. |title=Who freed the slaves? |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |date=March 1995 |volume=139 |issue=1 |page=9|jstor=986716}}</ref> 

As Lincoln had hoped, the Proclamation removed the threat that countries that opposed slavery, especially Britain and France, would support the Confederacy.{{sfn|Jones|1995}} The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperheads, who opposed the war and advocated restoring the union by allowing slavery.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0032.105/--lincoln-s-critics-the-copperheads?rgn=main;view=fulltext|title=Lincoln's critics: the Copperheads|last=Weber|first=Jennifer|volume=32|issue=1|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|date=Winter 2011|pages=33&ndash;47|doi=10.5406/19457987.32.1.05}}</ref> It was also seen as a betrayal of his promise to Southern Unionists not to tamper with slavery; [[Emerson Etheridge]], then [[Clerk of the United States House of Representatives|Clerk of the House of Representatives]], joined an unsuccessful plot to give Democrats and Southern Unionists control of the House.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 591}} As a result of the Proclamation, enlisting freedmen became official policy. In a letter to Tennessee military governor [[Andrew Johnson]], Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of fifty thousand armed, and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=431}}

====Gettysburg Address (1863)====
{{Main|Gettysburg Address}}
[[File:Gettysburg_Address_in_the_Lincoln_Memorial.JPG|alt=Text of the Gettysburg Address|thumb|Gettysburg Address engraved in the [[Lincoln Memorial]]]]
Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=453–460}} In 272 words, taking only three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many soldiers would not be in vain, that the future of democracy would be assured, and that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth".{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=460–466|Wills|2012|2pp=20, 27, 105, 146}} The Address became the most quoted speech in American history.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=222}}

After victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Lincoln proclaimed a national [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]], to be celebrated on the 26th, the final Thursday of November 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}}

====Promoting General Grant====

{{main|Ulysses S. Grant}}

General Ulysses Grant's victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."{{sfn|Thomas|2008|p=315}} Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and Grant's success at [[Chattanooga campaign|Chattanooga]] persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to commander of all Union armies.<ref name=anb/> Grant then waged the bloody [[Overland Campaign]], which exacted heavy losses on both sides.{{sfn|McPherson|2009|p=113}} 

Amid the turmoil of military actions, on June 30, 1864, Lincoln signed into law the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].{{sfn|Schaffer|1999|p=48}} According to Rolf Diamant and Ethan Carr, "[T]he [[Yosemite National Park#Yosemite Grant|Yosemite Grant]] was a direct consequence of the war ... an embodiment of the ongoing process of remaking government ... an intentional assertion of a steadfast belief in the eventual Union victory."{{sfn|Diamant|Carr|2022|pp=54&ndash;55}}
Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=422–424}} Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction for its own sake.{{sfn|Neely|2004|pp=434–458}} As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. At one point, Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads Conference|Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=565}} In early April, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital, whereupon on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered his [[Army of Northern Virginia]] to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=589}}

====Fiscal and monetary policy====
{{Main|Economic history of the United States Civil War}}

[[File:US-$1-LT-1862-Fr-16c.jpg|thumb|alt=Both sides of a one-dollar bill|One dollar "Greenback"]]
After the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln and Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase faced the challenge of funding a wartime economy. Congress quickly approved Lincoln's request to assemble a 500,000-man army, but it initially resisted raising taxes.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=27–28}} After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run, Congress passed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], which imposed the first [[Income tax in the United States|U.S. federal income tax]]. The act created a flat tax of three percent on incomes above $800 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|800|1861|r=-2}}}} in current dollars). This taxation reflected the increasing amount of wealth held in stocks and bonds rather than property, which the federal government had taxed in the past.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=30–35}} As the average urban worker made approximately $600 per year, the income tax burden fell primarily on the rich.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=111–112}} Lincoln also signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]]s, the first having become law in the final months of Buchanan's tenure. These tariffs raised import duties considerably and were designed both to raise revenue and to protect domestic manufacturing against foreign competition. During the war, the tariff also helped manufacturers offset the burden of new taxes.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=113–114}} Throughout the war, Congress debated whether to raise additional revenue primarily by increasing tariff rates, which most strongly affected rural areas in the West, or by increasing income taxes, which most strongly affected wealthier individuals in the Northeast.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|p=85}}
The revenue measures of 1861 proved inadequate for funding the war, forcing Congress to pass further bills to generate revenue.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=37–38}}

In February 1862, Congress passed the [[Legal Tender Act]], which authorized the minting of $150 million of "[[Greenback (1860s money)|greenbacks]]"—the first [[banknote]]s issued by the U.S. government since the end of the [[American Revolution]]. Greenbacks were not backed by [[gold]] or [[silver]], but rather by the government's promise to honor their value. By the end of the war, $450 million worth of greenbacks were in circulation.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=109–110}} Congress also passed the Revenue Act of 1862, which established an [[excise tax]] affecting nearly every commodity,{{sfn|Paludan|1994|p=111}} as well as the first national [[Estate tax in the United States|inheritance tax]].<ref name="pollack1"/> The Revenue Act of 1862 also added a [[progressive tax]] structure to the federal income tax.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=40–42}} To collect these taxes, Congress created the Office of the [[Commissioner of Internal Revenue]].<ref name="pollack1">{{cite journal|last1=Pollack|first1=Sheldon D.|title=The first national income tax, 1861–1872|journal=Tax Lawyer|date=2014|volume=67|issue=2|url=https://udel.edu/~pollack/Downloaded%20SDP%20articles,%20etc/academic%20articles/The%20First%20National%20Income%20Tax%2012-18-2013.pdf}}</ref> 

Despite these new measures, funding the war continued to be a challenge.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=81–82}} The government continued to issue greenbacks and borrow large amounts of money, and the U.S. national debt grew from $65 million in 1860 to $2 billion in 1866.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=109–110}} The [[Revenue Act of 1864]] represented a compromise between those who favored a more progressive tax structure and those who favored a flat tax.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=84–88}} It established a five-percent tax on incomes greater than $600, a ten-percent tax on incomes above $10,000, and it raised taxes on businesses.<ref name="pollack1" /> In early 1865, Congress levied a tax of ten percent on incomes above $5000.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=90–91}} By the end of the war, the [[income tax]] constituted about one-fifth of the federal government's revenue,<ref name="pollack1" /> though it was intended as a [[State of emergency|temporary wartime measure]].{{sfn|Brownlee|2004|pp=34&ndash;37}}
Lincoln also took action against rampant fraud during the war, enacting the [[False Claims Act of 1863]]. This imposed civil and criminal penalties for false claims and made it possible for private citizens to file false claims ([[qui tam]]) lawsuits on behalf of the U.S. government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamer|first= Sean|year=1996|title=Lincoln's law: constitutional and policy issues posed by the qui tam provisions of the false claims act|journal=Kansas Journal of Law & Public Policy|volume=6|issue=2|pages= 89&ndash;106}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The False Claims Act: a primer |url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/civil/legacy/2011/04/22/C-FRAUDS_FCA_Primer.pdf |accessdate=March 13, 2025 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice}}</ref> Hoping to stabilize the currency, Chase convinced Congress to pass the [[National Banking Act]] in February 1863, as well as a second banking act in 1864. Those acts established the [[Office of the Comptroller of the Currency]] to oversee "national banks" subject to federal, rather than state, regulation. In return for investing a third of their capital in federal bonds, these national banks were authorized to issue federal banknotes.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=81–82}} After Congress imposed a tax on private banknotes in March 1865, federal banknotes became the dominant form of paper currency.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=111–112}}

====Foreign policy====
{{Further|Diplomacy of the American Civil War|History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897}}
Lincoln had "limited familiarity with diplomatic practices" but had a "substantial influence on U.S. diplomacy" as the Union attempted to avoid war with Britain and France.{{sfn|Mahin|1999|pp=2&ndash;3}} At the start of the war, Russia was the lone [[great power]] to support the Union, while the other European powers had varying degrees of sympathy for the Confederacy. Lincoln's policy succeeded: all foreign nations were officially neutral throughout the Civil War, with none recognizing the Confederacy.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=226–229}} European leaders saw the division of the United States as having the potential to eliminate, or at least greatly weaken, a growing rival. They looked for ways to exploit the inability of the U.S. to enforce the [[Monroe Doctrine]]. Spain invaded the [[Dominican Republic]] in 1861, while France established [[second Mexican Empire|a puppet regime]] in [[Mexico]].{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=224–229}} However, many in Europe also hoped for a quick end to the war, both for humanitarian reasons and because of the economic disruption it caused.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=240–241}}

Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. The European aristocracy (the dominant class in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed." Union diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, and instead they argued that secession was unconstitutional. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy.{{sfn|Doyle|2014|pp=8, 69–70}} However, the Confederacy's hope that cotton exports would compel European interference did not come to fruition, as Britain found alternative sources of cotton and experienced economic growth in industries that did not rely on cotton.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=235–236}} Though the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately end the possibility of European intervention, it rallied European public opinion to the Union by adding abolition as a Union war goal. Any chance of a European intervention in the war ended with the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, as European leaders came to believe that the Confederate cause was doomed.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=242–246}}

====Native Americans====
{{Main|Dakota War of 1862}}
The Lincoln administration faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraph from Native American attacks.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nichols|first=David Allen|year=1974|title=The other civil war: Lincoln and the Indians|journal=Minnesota History|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/44/v44i01p002-015.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/44/v44i01p002-015.pdf|archive-date=October 9, 2022|url-status=live|pages=3&ndash;15}}</ref> On August 17, 1862, the [[Dakota War of 1862|Dakota War]] broke out in Minnesota. Hundreds of settlers were killed and 30,000 were displaced from their homes.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=480}} Some feared incorrectly that it might represent a Confederate conspiracy to start a war on the Northwestern frontier.{{sfn|Finkelman|2018|p=127}} Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war be sent to put down the uprising. When the Confederacy protested, Lincoln revoked the policy and none arrived in Minnesota.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 481}} Lincoln sent General [[John Pope (general)|John Pope]] as commander of the new [[Department of the Northwest]].{{sfnm|1a1=Finkelman|1y=2018|1p=121|2a1=Bulla|2a2=Borchard|2y=2010|2p=481}} Serving under Pope was Minnesota Congressman [[Henry Hastings Sibley]]. Minnesota's governor had made Sibley a Colonel [[United States Volunteers]] to command the U.S. force tasked with fighting the war and that eventually defeated [[Little Crow]]'s forces at the [[Battle of Wood Lake]].{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=481}}

A [[war crimes trial]] led by Sibley sentenced 303 Dakota warriors to death.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 481}} Lincoln pardoned all but 39, and, with one getting a reprieve, the remaining 38 were executed in the largest mass execution in U.S. history.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=394|Clodfelter|1998|2pp=58&ndash;59}} Less than four months later, Lincoln issued the [[Lieber Code]], which governed wartime conduct of the Union Army, by defining command responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://opil.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e2126|last=Labuda|first=Patryk|title=Lieber Code|encyclopedia=Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law|date=September 2014}}</ref> Congressman [[Alexander Ramsey]] told Lincoln in 1864 that he would have gotten more re-election support in Minnesota had he executed all 303. Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes."{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 483}}

===Second term===
[[File:Harper's_weekly_(1865)_(14577952769).jpg|thumb|alt=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars|Lincoln's [[Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]] at the nearly completed [[United States Capitol|U.S. Capitol]] on March 4, 1865]]
====Re-election====
{{Main|1864 United States presidential election}}

Lincoln ran for re-election in 1864; the Republican Party selected [[Andrew Johnson]], a [[War Democrat]], as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]].{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=494–507|Burlingame|2008|2loc=v. 2 p. 642}} Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat; Lincoln rejected pressure for a peace settlement.<ref name=anb/> Lincoln prepared a confidential memorandum pledging that, if he should lose the election, he would "co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward".<ref name=anb/>{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=529}} At the next cabinet meeting, Lincoln "asked each member to sign his name on the back of the document", but he did not allow them to read it.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=530}}

Victories at [[Atlanta campaign|Atlanta]] and in the [[Valley campaigns of 1864#Sheridan's Shenandoah Valley campaign (August–October 1864)|Shenandoah Valley]] turned public opinion, and Lincoln was re-elected.<ref name=anb/> On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his [[second inaugural address]]. Historian [[Mark Noll]] places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the [[Lincoln Memorial]].{{sfn|Noll|2002|p=426}} Lincoln closed his speech with these words:

{{Blockquote|With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/linc/learn/historyculture/lincoln-second-inaugural.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|title=Lincoln's second inaugural address|accessdate=April 27, 2025}}</ref>}}

====Reconstruction====
{{Main|Reconstruction era}}
Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=509–512}} Lincoln's main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation.{{sfn|Koehn|2017|p=191}} Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Charles Sumner and [[Benjamin Wade]], who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they signed an oath of allegiance.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=471–472}}

As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were being restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln appointed Johnson and [[Frederick Steele]], respectively, as military governors.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=484}} In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, but only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the plan to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient and passed their own plan, the 1864 [[Wade–Davis Bill]], but Lincoln pocket-vetoed it. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=509&ndash;511|Burlingame|2008|2loc=v. 2 pp. 594&ndash;600, 659&ndash;664}}

[[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|upright=1.4|alt=Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union|thumb|An 1865 political cartoon, ''The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union'', depicting Vice President [[Andrew Johnson]], a former tailor, and Lincoln.]]
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery nationwide with a constitutional amendment. By December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=554}} The Senate passed it on April 8, 1864, but the first vote in the House of Representatives fell short of the required two-thirds majority. Passage became part of Lincoln's re-election platform, and after his re-election, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=562–563}} After ratification by three-fourths of the states in December 1865, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 751}}

Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists.{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=242–243}} [[Eric Foner]] argues:{{sfn|Foner|2010|p=335}}
{{Blockquote|Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans.&nbsp;... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves.&nbsp;... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death.}}

Lincoln vetoed only four bills during his presidency, including the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=137}} The [[1862 Homestead Act]] made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]] provided government grants for [[List of agricultural universities and colleges|agricultural colleges]] in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[first transcontinental railroad]], which was completed in 1869.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|p=116}} The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.{{sfn|McPherson|2009|pp=450–452}}

====Assassination====
{{Main|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|}}
[[File:Lincoln assassination slide c1900 - Restoration.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Painting of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.|An illustration of [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's assassination]] on April 14, 1865, in the presidential booth at [[Ford's Theatre]], featuring (left to right): assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]], Abraham Lincoln, [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[Clara Harris]], and [[Henry Rathbone]]]]

[[John Wilkes Booth]] was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=586–587}} After attending Lincoln's last public address, on April 11, 1865, in which Lincoln stated his preference that the franchise be conferred on some Black men, specifically "on the very intelligent, and on those who serve our cause as soldiers",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-presidents-last-public-address|title=The President's last public address|website=The American Presidency Project|publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara|accessdate=May 3, 2025}}</ref> Booth plotted to assassinate the President.{{sfn|Harrison|2010|pp=3–4}} When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at [[Ford's Theatre]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=734&ndash;735}} Lincoln and his wife attended the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on the evening of April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=594–597}}

At 10:15 pm, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest, Major [[Henry Rathbone]], momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=597}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html |title=Lincoln's missing bodyguard |first=Paul |last=Martin |date=April 8, 2010 |work=Smithsonian |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221216/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html |archivedate=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> After being attended by [[Charles Leale|Doctor Charles Leale]] and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a [[coma]] for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15.{{sfn|Steers|2010|p=153}} Lincoln's body was wrapped in a flag and placed in a coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers.{{sfn|Craughwell|2009|p=4}} President Johnson was sworn in later that same day.{{sfn|Trefousse|1989|p=194}} Two weeks later, Booth was located, shot and killed at a farm in Virginia by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]].{{sfnm|Steers|2010|1p=153|Donald|1996|2p=599}}
==== Funeral and burial ====
{{Main|State funeral of Abraham Lincoln}}
From April 19 to 20, Lincoln lay in state, first in the [[White House]] and then in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|Capitol rotunda]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 p. 820}} The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his third son [[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie]] then traveled for two weeks on a [[State funeral of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train to Springfield, Illinois|funeral train]] following a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=v. 2 pp. 822&ndash;825}} Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=v. 2 p. 822|Goodrich|2005|2pp=231–238}} Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death.{{sfn|Hodes|2015|pp=84, 86, 96–97}} Poet [[Walt Whitman]] composed "[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]" to eulogize Lincoln.{{sfn|Peck|2015|pp=118–123}} Lincoln's body was buried at [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield and now lies within the [[Lincoln Tomb]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Survey of historic sites and buildings – Lincoln Tomb, Illinois |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/Presidents/site19.htm |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830182658/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/Presidents/site19.htm |archivedate=August 30, 2009 |url-status=dead|accessdate=May 4, 2025}}</ref>