Editing Teotihuacan (section)

==Archeological site==
Knowledge of the huge [[ruins]] of Teotihuacan was never completely lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was a place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Today, Teotihuacan is one of the most noted archeological attractions in Mexico.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

===Excavations and investigations===
[[File:SunPyramid.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Pyramid of the Sun and the Teotihuacán Diorama at the Teotihuacán Museum.]]

In the late 17th century [[Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora]] (1645–1700) made some excavations around the Pyramid of the Sun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.milenio.com/node/501242|title=Tunnel under Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent under exploration in 2010|access-date=2021-11-24|archive-date=2012-09-07|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907021755/http://www.milenio.com/node/501242|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Minor archeological excavations were conducted in the 19th century. In 1905 Mexican archeologist and government official, in the regime of [[Porfirio Díaz]], [[Leopoldo Batres]]<ref>[[:es:Leopoldo Batres|es:Leopoldo Batres]]</ref> led a major project of excavation and restoration. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of the [[Mexican War of Independence]] in 1910. The site of Teotihuacan was the first to be expropriated for the national patrimony under the Law of Monuments (1897), giving jurisdiction under legislation for the Mexican state to take control. Some 250 plots were farmed on the site. Peasants who had been farming portions were ordered to leave and the Mexican government eventually paid some compensation to those individuals.<ref>Bueno, ''The Pursuit of Ruins'', pp. 80, 192–95,</ref> A feeder train line was built to the site in 1908, which allowed the efficient hauling of material from the excavations and later brought tourists to the site.<ref>Bueno, ''The Pursuit of Ruins'', pp. 199–200.</ref> In 1910, the [[International Congress of Americanists]] met in Mexico, coinciding with the centennial celebrations, and the distinguished delegates, such as its president [[Eduard Seler]] and vice president [[Franz Boas]] were taken to the newly finished excavations.<ref>Bueno, ''The Pursuit of Ruins'', 206–207.</ref>

Further excavations at the ''Ciudadela'' were carried out in the 1920s, supervised by [[Manuel Gamio]]. Between April 26 and July 29, 1932, Swedish anthropologist/archaeologist [[:sv:Sigvald Linné|Sigvald Linné]], his wife, and a small crew excavated in the Xolalpan area, part of the municipality of San Juan Teotihuacán.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Linné |first1=Sigvald |title=Archaeological Researches at Teotihuacan, Mexico |date=2003 |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |location=Tuscaloosa |isbn=9780817350055 |page=xiii |url=https://www.uapress.ua.edu/9780817350055/archaeological-researches-at-teotihuacan-mexico/}}</ref> Other sections of the site were excavated in the 1940s and 1950s. The first site-wide project of restoration and excavation was carried out by [[INAH]] from 1960 to 1965, supervised by [[Jorge R. Acosta|Jorge Acosta]]. This undertaking had the goals of clearing the Avenue of the Dead, consolidating the structures facing it, and excavating the Palace of ''[[Quetzalpapalotl]]''.<ref>Acosta, Jorge R. "ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEOTIHUACAN." Artes De México, no. 134 (1970): 11–18. Accessed September 13, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24316098.</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" caption="[[:sv:Sigvald Linné|Sigvald Linné]] 1932 investigations, [[:sv:Statens museer för världskultur|Statens museer för världskultur]]">
File:Dr o fru Linné tvättar krukskärvor - SMVK - 0307.a.0053.tif
File:Från utgrävningarna vid Xolalpan - SMVK - 0307.a.0185.tif
File:Från utgrävningarna vid Thomas Palmas hus - SMVK - 0307.a.0038.tif
File:Från utgrävningarna vid Xolalpan - SMVK - 0307.a.0149.tif
</gallery>

During the installation of a "sound and light" show in 1971, workers discovered the entrance to a tunnel and cave system underneath the Pyramid of the Sun.<ref>Heyden (1975, p. 131)</ref> Although scholars long thought this to be a natural cave, more recent examinations have established the tunnel was entirely manmade.<ref>Šprajc (2000), p. 410</ref> The interior of the Pyramid of the Sun has never been fully excavated.

In 1980–82, another major program of excavation and restoration was carried out at the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the Avenue of the Dead complex. Most recently, a series of excavations at the Pyramid of the Moon have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

====Recent discoveries====
[[File:Teotihuacan-Temple_of_the_Feathered_Serpent-3035.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Teotihuacan – Temple of the Feathered Serpent – architectural detail to the right of the steps.]]

In late 2003 a tunnel beneath the [[Temple of the Feathered Serpent]] was accidentally discovered by Sergio Gómez Chávez and Julie Gazzola, archeologists of the [[Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia|National Institute of Anthropology and History]] (INAH). After days of a heavy rainstorm, Gómez Chávez noticed that a nearly three-foot-wide [[sinkhole]] occurred near the foot of the temple pyramid.<ref name="INAH-2010-08-03">National Institute of Anthropology and History ([[INAH]]), Mexico. Press release, 3 August 2010. [https://universes.art/art-destinations/mexico/tour/teotihuacan-tunnel Teotihuacan tunnel – entrance located. Archaeologists Locate the Entrance to Teotihuacan Tunnel], ''Universes in Universe – Worlds of Art'', 3 August 2010</ref><ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06">Matthew Shaer, Janet Jarman (photos). [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/discovery-secret-tunnel-mexico-solve-mysteries-teotihuacan-180959070 A Secret Tunnel Found in Mexico May Finally Solve the Mysteries of Teotihuacán], ''[[Smithsonian Magazine]]'', June 2016</ref><ref name="Laity-Guardian">Paul Laity. [https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/sep/24/teotihuacan-pyramids-treasures-secret-de-young-museum-san-francisco Lakes of mercury and human sacrifices – after 1,800 years, Teotihuacan reveals its treasures], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 24 September 2017 18.52 BST</ref><ref name="De_Young2017">De Young Museum. [https://digitalstories.famsf.org/teo Teotihuacan: City of Water, City of Fire. De Young Museum, September 30, 2017 – February 11, 2018], ''[[De Young Museum]]'', 2017</ref>

First trying to examine the hole with a flashlight from above Gómez could see only darkness, so tied with a line of heavy rope around his waist he was lowered by several colleagues, and descending into the murk he realized it was a perfectly cylindrical shaft. At the bottom he came to rest in an apparently ancient construction – a man-made tunnel, blocked in both directions by immense stones. Gómez was aware that archeologists had previously discovered a narrow tunnel underneath the [[Pyramid of the Sun]] and supposed he was now observing a kind of similar mirror tunnel, leading to a subterranean chamber beneath the Temple of the Feathered Serpent. He decided initially to elaborate on a clear hypothesis and to obtain approval. Meanwhile, he erected a tent over the sinkhole to preserve it from the hundreds of thousands of tourists who visit Teotihuacán. Researchers reported that the tunnel was believed to have been sealed in 200 CE.<ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/><ref name="Laity-Guardian"/><ref>The [[Associated Press]]. [https://phys.org/news/2010-12-experts-ancient-mexicans-crossbred-wolf-dogs.html Experts: Ancient Mexicans crossbred wolf-dogs], ''[[Phys.org]]'' (Science X network), December 16, 2010</ref><ref>[[Deutsche Presse-Agentur]] GmbH. [https://phys.org/news/2011-05-tunnel-temple-mexico.html Tunnel found under temple in Mexico], ''[[Phys.org]]'' (Science X network), May 30, 2011</ref>

Preliminary planning of the exploration and fundraising took more than six years.<ref name="INAH-2010-08-03"/>

Before the start of excavations, beginning in the early months of 2004, [[Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera]], from [[UNAM]] Institute of Geophysics, determined with the help of [[ground-penetrating radar]] (GPR) and a team of some 20 archeologists and workers the approximate length of the tunnel and the presence of internal chambers. They scanned the earth under the Ciudadela, returning every afternoon to upload the results to Gómez's computers. By 2005, the digital map was complete. The archeologists explored the tunnel with a [[remote-controlled]] [[robot]] called [[Tlaloc II-TC]], equipped with an infrared camera and a [[laser scanner]] that generates [[3D scanner|3D visualization]] to perform three-dimensional register of the spaces beneath the temple. A small opening in the tunnel wall was made and the scanner captured the first images, 37 meters into the passage.<ref name="INAH-2010-08-03"/><ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/><ref name="ArtDaily-2010-11-12">[http://artdaily.com/news/42504/First-Images-of-the-Interior-of-Teotihuacan-Tunnel-Captured-by-Camera-on-Small-Robot First Images of the Interior of Teotihuacan Tunnel Captured by Camera on Small Robot], ''ArtDaily'', November 12, 2010</ref><ref name="Rossella_Lorenzi">Rossella Lorenzi. [http://science.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/04/30/17989110-robot-finds-mysterious-spheres-in-ancient-temple?lite Robot finds mysterious spheres in ancient temple], ''[[NBCNews.com]]'',  April 30, 2013</ref>

In 2009, the government granted Gómez permission to dig. By the end of 2009 archeologists of the [[INAH]] located the entrance to the tunnel that leads to galleries under the pyramid, where remains of rulers of the ancient city might have been deposited. In August 2010 Gómez Chávez, now director of ''Tlalocan Project: Underground Road'', announced that INAH's investigation of the tunnel – closed nearly 1,800 years ago by Teotihuacan dwellers – would proceed. The INAH team, consisting of about 30 people supported by national and international advisors at the highest scientific levels, intended to enter the tunnel in September–October 2010. This excavation, the deepest made at the Pre-Hispanic site, was part of the commemorations of the 100th anniversary of archeological excavations at Teotihuacan and its opening to the public.<ref name="INAH-2010-08-03"/><ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/>

[[File:Teotihuacán,_México,_2013-10-13,_DD_48.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Avenue of the Dead, Teotihuacán, Mexico.]]

It was mentioned that the underground passage runs under Feathered Serpent Temple, and the entrance is located a few meters away from the temple at the expected place, deliberately sealed with large boulders nearly 2,000 years ago. The hole that had appeared during the 2003 storms was not the actual entrance; a vertical shaft of almost 5 meters by side is the access to the tunnel. At 14 meters deep, the entrance leads to a nearly 100-meter long corridor that ends in a series of underground galleries in the rock. After archeologists broke ground at the entrance of the tunnel, a staircase, and ladders that would allow easy access to the subterranean site were installed. Works advanced slowly and with painstaking care; excavating was done manually, with spades. Nearly 1,000 tons of soil and debris were removed from the tunnel. There were large spiral seashells, cat bones, pottery, fragments of human skin. The rich array of objects unearthed included: wooden masks covered with inlaid rock [[jade]] and [[quartz]], elaborate necklaces, rings, greenstone crocodile teeth and human figurines, crystals shaped into eyes, beetle wings arranged in a box, sculptures of jaguars, and hundreds of [[Metallizing|metalized]] spheres. The mysterious globes lay in both the north and south chambers. Ranging from 40 to 130 millimeters, the balls have a core of [[clay]] and are covered with a yellow [[jarosite]] formed by the [[oxidation]] of [[pyrite]]. According to [[George Cowgill]] of [[Arizona State University]], the spheres are a fascinating find: ''"Pyrite was certainly used by the Teotihuacanos and other ancient Mesoamerican societies. Originally, the spheres would have shown [sic] brilliantly. They are indeed unique, but I have no idea what they mean."''<ref name="Rossella_Lorenzi"/> All these artifacts were deposited deliberately and pointedly, as if in offering to appease the gods.<ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/><ref name="Laity-Guardian"/>

[[File:Teotihuacan-Vasija_coyotlatelco.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Vessel of the Coyotlatelco type.]]

One of the most remarkable findings in the tunnel chambers was a miniature mountainous landscape, 17 meters underground, with tiny pools of liquid [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] representing lakes.<ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/><ref name="Laity-Guardian"/><ref>Alan Yuhas. [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/24/liquid-mercury-mexican-pyramid-teotihuacan Liquid mercury found under Mexican pyramid could lead to king's tomb], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 24 April 2015</ref> The walls and ceiling of the tunnel were found to have been carefully impregnated with mineral powder composed of [[magnetite]], [[pyrite]] (fool's gold), and [[hematite]] to provide a glittering brightness to the complex, and to create the effect of standing under the stars as a peculiar re-creation of the underworld.<ref name="Rossella_Lorenzi"/> At the end of the passage, Gómez Chávez's team uncovered four [[Greenstone (archaeology)|greenstone]] statues, wearing garments and beads; their open eyes would have shone with precious minerals. Two of the figurines were still in their original positions, leaning back and appearing to contemplate up at the axis where the three planes of the universe meet – likely the founding shamans of Teotihuacan, guiding pilgrims to the sanctuary, and carrying bundles of sacred objects used to perform rituals, including pendants and pyrite mirrors, which were perceived as portals to other realms.<ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/><ref name="Laity-Guardian"/>

After each new segment was cleared, the [[3D scanner]] documented the progress. By 2015 nearly 75,000 fragments of artifacts have been discovered, studied, cataloged, analyzed and, when possible, restored.<ref name="Smithsonian-2016-06"/><ref name="Laity-Guardian"/><ref name="ArtDaily-2010-11-12"/><ref name="Rossella_Lorenzi"/>

The significance of these new discoveries is publicly explored in a major exhibition at the [[De Young Museum]] in [[San Francisco]], which opened in late September 2017.<ref name="Laity-Guardian"/><ref name="De_Young2017"/>

A recent discovery of an 1800-year-old bouquet of flowers was made in 2021. The flowers, which were found in the tunnel beneath a pyramid dedicated to the feathered serpent deity Quetzalcóatl, date to between roughly 1 and 200 C.E. It is the first time such a well-preserved plant matter has been discovered at Teotihuacan.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gershon|first=Livia|title=1,800-Year-Old Flower Bouquets Found in Tunnel Beneath Teotihuacán Pyramid|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/1800-year-old-flower-bouquets-found-below-temple-teotihuacan-180978518/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-14|title=Nearly intact 1,800-year-old bouquets of flowers found in Teotihuacan|url=https://arkeonews.net/nearly-intact-1800-year-old-bouquets-of-flowers-found-in-teotihuacan/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Arkeonews|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-27|title=1,800-Year-Old Flower Bouquets Found in Tunnel Beneath Teotihuacán Pyramid|url=https://madghosts.com/historybuff/1800-year-old-flower-bouquets-found-in-tunnel-beneath-teotihuacan-pyramid/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=MadGhosts|language=en-US}}</ref>

====Monuments of Teotihuacan====
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2020}}
The city of Teotihuacan was characterized by large and imposing buildings, which included, apart from the complexes of houses, temples, large squares, stadiums, and palaces of the rulers, nobles, and priests. The city's urban-ceremonial space is considered one of the most impressive achievements of the pre-Columbian New World. 
The size and quality of the monuments, the originality of the residential architecture, and the miraculous iconography in the colored murals of the buildings or the vases with the paintings of butterflies, eagles, coyotes with feathers and jaguars, suggest beyond any doubt a high-level civilization, whose cultural influences were spread and transplanted into all the Mesoamerican populations. The main monuments of the city of Teotihuacan are connected to each other by a central road of 45 meters wide and a length of 2 kilometers, called "Avenue of the Dead " (Avenida de Los Muertos), because it is believed to have been paved with tombs. East is the imposing "Pyramid of the Sun " (Piramide del Sol), the third-largest pyramid in the world. It has a volume of 1 million cubic meters. It is a gradual pyramid, with a base dimension of 219.4 x 231.6 meters and a height of 65 meters. At the top of the pyramid, there was a huge pedestal, where human sacrifices were made. 
At the north end of the city, the Boulevard of the dead ends in the "Pyramid of the Moon " (Piramide de la Luna), surrounded laterally by platforms-ramps and lower pyramids. In the southern part is the "Temple of Cetzalkokal " (Quetzalcoatl), dedicated to God in the form of a winged serpent, which gives life and fertility. Sculpture representation of the God Ketzalkokal and twelve Heads of winged snakes adorn the two sides of the uphill scale of the temple.

===Site layout===
The city's broad central [[Avenue (landscape)|avenue]], called "Avenue of the Dead" (a translation from its Nahuatl name ''Miccaotli''), is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense [[Pyramid of the Sun]] (third largest in the world after the [[Great Pyramid of Cholula]] and the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]]). [[Pyramid of the Moon]] and The Ciudadela with [[Temple of the Feathered Serpent, Teotihuacan|Temple of the Feathered Serpent]] are placed at both ends of the Avenue while [[Quetzalpapálotl|Palace-museum Quetzalpapálot]], the fourth basic structure of the site, is situated between two main pyramids. Along the Avenue are many smaller talud-tablero platforms as well. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Scholars have now established that these were ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

[[File:Teotihucan layout.gif|thumb|A recreation of a map of the city featured in the June 1967 issue of Scientific American and the captioned source.]]

The Avenue of the Dead is roughly 40 meters wide and 4&nbsp;km long.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pueblosoriginarios.com/meso/valle/teotihuacan/muertos.html|title=Calzada de los Muertos. Zona arqueológica de Teotihuacan|website=pueblosoriginarios.com|access-date=2017-09-16}}</ref> Further down the Avenue of the Dead, after a small river, is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent Quetzalcoatl. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops where artisans produced pottery and other goods.

The urban layout of Teotihuacan exhibits two slightly different orientations, which resulted from both astronomical and topographic criteria. The central part of the city, including the Avenue of the Dead, conforms to the orientation of the Sun Pyramid, while the southern part reproduces the orientation of the Ciudadela. The two constructions recorded sunrises and sunsets on particular dates, allowing the use of an observational calendar. The orientation of the Sun Pyramid was intended to record "the sunrises on February 11 and October 29 and sunsets on April 30 and August 13. The interval from February 11 and October 29, as well as from August 13 to April 30, is exactly 260 days".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Šprajc |first1=Ivan |title=Astronomical alignments at Teotihuacan, Mexico |journal=Latin American Antiquity |date=2000 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=406|doi=10.2307/972004 |jstor=972004 |s2cid=55054050 }}</ref> The recorded intervals are multiples of 13 and 20 days, which were elementary periods of the Mesoamerican calendar. Furthermore, the Sun Pyramid is aligned to Cerro Gordo to the north, which means that it was purposefully built on a spot where a structure with a rectangular ground plan could satisfy both topographic and astronomical requirements. The artificial cave under the pyramid additionally attests to the importance of this spot.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Šprajc |first1=Ivan |title=Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |date=2018 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=197–251 |doi=10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z |s2cid=149439162 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Šprajc |first1=Ivan |title=Astronomical alignments at Teotihuacan, Mexico |journal=Latin American Antiquity |date=2000 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=403–415|doi=10.2307/972004 |jstor=972004 |s2cid=55054050 }}</ref>

Another example of artificial landscape modifications is the course of the San Juan River, which was modified to bend around the structures as it goes through the center of town eventually returning to its natural course outside of Teotihuacan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aveni |first1=Anthony |title=Skywatchers |date=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=United States of America |page=223}}</ref>

[[File:Toilet_in_Teotihuacan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Toilet in Teotihuacan.]]
Pecked-cross circles throughout the city and in the surrounding regions served as a way to design the urban grid, and as a way to read their 260-day calendar. The urban grid had great significance to city planners when constructing Teotihuacan, as the cross is pecked into the ground in the Pyramid of the Sun in specific places throughout Teotihuacan in precise degrees and angles over three km in distance. The layout of these crosses suggests it was there to work as a grid to the layout of Teotihuacan because they are laid out in a rectangular shape facing the Avenue of the Dead. The direction of the axes of the crosses don't point to an astronomical North and South direction but instead point to their own city's North. Numerology also has significance in the cross pecking because of the placement and amount of the holes, which sometimes count to 260 days, the length of the ritual calendrical cycle.<ref name=Aveni>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1126/science.202.4365.267| pmid=17817633|bibcode = 1978Sci...202..267A|title = The Pecked Cross Symbol in Ancient Mesoamerica| journal=Science| volume=202| issue=4365| pages=267–86|last1 = Aveni|first1 = Anthony F.| last2=Hartung| first2=Horst| last3=Buckingham| first3=Beth| year=1978| s2cid=28670682}}</ref> Some of the pecked-cross circles also resemble an ancient Aztec game called, [[patolli]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aveni |first1=Anthony |title=Skywatchers |date=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=United States of America |page=333}}</ref>
[[File:Tunnel in the Avenue of the Dead at Teotihuacan.jpg|thumb|A tunnel under steps in the Great Compound along the Avenue of the Dead.]]
These pecked-cross circles can be found not just in Teotihuacan, but also throughout Mesoamerica. The ones found all share certain similarities. These include having the shape of two circles, one being inside of the other. They are all found pecked on the ground or onto rocks. They are all created with a small hammer-like device that produces cuplike markings that are 1 centimeter in diameter and 2 centimeters apart. They all have axes that are in line with the city structures of the region. Because they are aligned with the structures of the cities, they also align with the position of significant astronomical bodies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aveni |first1=Anthony |title=Skywatchers |date=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=United States of America |page=330}}</ref>

The Ciudadela was completed during the Miccaotli phase, and the Pyramid of the Sun underwent a complex series of additions and renovations. The Great Compound was constructed across the Avenue of the Dead, west of Ciudadela. This was probably the city's marketplace. The existence of a large market in an urban center of this size is strong evidence of state organization. Teotihuacan was at that point simply too large and too complex to have been politically viable as a chiefdom.

The Ciudadela is a great enclosed plaza capable of holding 100,000 people. About 700,000 cubic meters (yards) of material were used to construct its buildings. Its central feature is the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, which was flanked by upper-class apartments. The entire compound was designed to overwhelm visitors.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}