Editing Talcott Parsons (section)

===Anticommunism===
Parsons' fight against [[communism]] was a natural extension of his fight against [[fascism]] in the 1930s and the 1940s. For Parsons, communism and fascism were two aspects of the same problem; his article "A Tentative Outline of American Values", published posthumously in 1989,<ref>Talcott Parsons, "A Tentative Outline of American Values" in Roland Robertson and [[Bryan S. Turner (sociologist)|Bryan S. Turner]] (eds.) ''Talcott Parsons: Theorist of Modernity.''London: Sage Publication, 1991. "A Tentative Outline of the American Value System" was written in 1959 or 1960 and can be seen as a kind of prelude of Parsons' long-term interest in writing a major work about American society and was an attempt to facilitate the theoretical fundament of the concept of the "societal community," which represented the I-factor (the integrative function) of the social system and the extreme importance in the fact that Parsons regarded it as the epicenter (or the logical "starting-point") of the general process of differentiation in and of society.</ref> called both collectivistic types "empirical finalism", which he believed was a secular "mirror" of religious types of "salvationalism". In contrast, Parsons highlighted that American values generally were based on the principle of "instrumental activism", which he believed was the outcome of Puritanism as a historical process. It represented what Parsons called "worldly [[asceticism]]" and represented the absolute opposite of empirical finalism. One can thus understand Parsons' statement late in life that the greatest threat to humanity is every type of "[[fundamentalism]]".<ref>Talcott Parsons, "Some Theoretical Considerations on the Nature and Trends of Change of Ethnicity" in Talcott Parsons, ''Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory'' New York: The Free Press, 1977, originally published 1975, p. 393.</ref> By the term ''empirical finalism'', he implied the type of claim assessed by cultural and ideological actors about the correct or "final" ends of particular patterns of value orientation in the actual historical world (such as the notion of "a truly just society"), which was absolutist and "indisputable" in its manner of declaration and in its function as a belief system. A typical example would be the [[Jacobins]]' behavior during the [[French Revolution]]. Parsons' rejection of communist and fascist totalitarianism was theoretically and intellectually an integral part of his theory of world history, and he tended to regard the European [[Reformation]] as the most crucial event in "modern" world history. Like Weber,<ref>Max Weber, ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' Roxbury Publishing Company, 2002.</ref> he tended to highlight the crucial impact of Calvinist religiosity in the socio-political and socio-economic processes that followed.<ref>Jens Kaalhauge Nielsen, "Are there Cultural Limits to Inclusion? An Analysis of the Relation Between Culture and Social Evolution in Talcott Parsons' Theory." In Gabriele Pollini & Giuseppe Sciortino (eds). ''Parsons' The Structure of Social Action and Contemporary Debates.'' Milano, Italy: FrancoAngeli, 2001.</ref> He maintained it reached its most radical form in England in the 17th century and in effect gave birth to the special cultural mode that has characterized the American value system and history ever since. The Calvinist faith system, authoritarian in the beginning, eventually released in its accidental long-term institutional effects a fundamental democratic revolution in the world.<ref>Letter from Talcott Parsons to Eric Voegelin, May 13, 1941. Talcott Parsons collection, Harvard University Archive.</ref> Parsons maintained that the revolution was steadily unfolding, as part of an interpenetration of Puritan values in the world at large.<ref>See among others: Talcott Parsons, "Religious and Economic Symbolism in the Western World." ''Sociological Inquiry'', Vol.49. (1) 1979. pp. 1–48.</ref>