Editing Somaliland (section)

=== Somali National Movement, Barre persecution ===
{{Main|Somali National Movement|Isaaq genocide|Somaliland War of Independence|Page 4 = 1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive}}
[[File:Somaliland, fighters of the Somali National Movement (SNM), 1980s.jpg|thumb|250px|right|

SNM fighters, late 1980s]]
[[File:4z2.jpg|upright|thumb|left|200px|Up to 90% of Hargeisa (2nd largest city of the [[Somali Republic]]) was destroyed by the [[Somali government]].]]
The [[moral authority]] of Barre's government was gradually eroded, as many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist [[Derg]] administration had sprung up across the country, which led to the [[Somaliland War of Independence]]. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of Hargeisa, a [[Somali National Movement]] (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.<ref name="Locsg">{{cite web|title=Somalia{{snd}}Government|url=http://countrystudies.us/somalia/65.htm|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=15 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="IYEz3">{{cite web |url=http://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2013/10/22/state-sponsored-violence-and-conflict-under-mahamed-siyad-barre-the-emergence-of-path-dependent-patterns-of-violence/ |title=State-sponsored violence and conflict under Mahamed Siyad Barre: the emergence of path dependent patterns of violence |last1=Compagnon |first1=Daniel |date=22 October 2013 |publisher=[[World Peace Foundation]], [[The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]] |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002022805/https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2013/10/22/state-sponsored-violence-and-conflict-under-mahamed-siyad-barre-the-emergence-of-path-dependent-patterns-of-violence/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The bombardment was led by General [[Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan]], Barre's son-in-law.<ref name="UKPZE">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1747697.stm#mshm |title=Analysis: Somalia's powerbrokers |date=8 January 2002 |work=BBC News |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref>

In May 1988, the SNM launched a [[1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive|major offensive]] on the cities of Hargeisa and [[Burao]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ff3fa8b2.html|access-date=14 January 2022|website=Refworld|page=6|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":04">{{Cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nu918tYMB8C&pg=PA37|title=Culture and Customs of Somalia|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2001|isbn=978-0-313-31333-2|page=37|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Waller|first=David|title=Rwanda: which way now?|date=1993|publisher=Oxfam|isbn=0-85598-217-9|location=Oxford|pages=10–12|oclc=29513928}}</ref> then the second and third largest cities of [[Somalia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Binet|first=Laurence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LboiAQAAQBAJ|title=Somalia 1991-1993: Civil War, Famine Alert and a UN "Military-Humanitarian" Intervention|date=3 October 2013|publisher=Médecins Sans Frontières|page=214|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA152|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|date=1 January 1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-97-4|page=152}}</ref> The SNM captured Burao on 27 May within two hours,<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Somalia : a government at war with its own people: testimonies about the killings and the conflict in the north.|date=1990|publisher=Africa Watch Committee |isbn=0-929692-33-0|location=New York |page=128|oclc=24108168}}</ref> while the SNM entered Hargeisa on 29 May, overrunning most of the city apart from its airport by 1 June.<ref name=":04" />

According to Abou Jeng and other scholars, the Barre regime rule was marked by a targeted brutal persecution of the [[Isaaq]] clan.<ref name="bzPKm">{{cite book|author=Abou Jeng|title=Peacebuilding in the African Union: Law, Philosophy and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUKxfDKkKi0C&pg=PA245 |year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01521-0|page=245}}</ref><ref name="DeSRJ">{{cite book|author=Marleen Renders|title=Consider Somaliland: State-Building with Traditional Leaders and Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPlgycWcpzAC&pg=PA59 |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-21848-2|pages=59–60}}</ref> Mohamed Haji Ingiriis and [[Chris Mullin (politician)|Chris Mullin]] state that the clampdown by the Barre regime against the Hargeisa-based Somali National Movement targeted the Isaaq clan, to which most members of the SNM belonged. They refer to the clampdown as the [[Isaaq Genocide]] or "Hargeisa Holocaust".<ref name="TQ11H">{{Cite journal |last= Ingiriis |first= Mohamed Haji |date= 2 July 2016 |title= "We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia|journal= African Security |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages= 237–258 |doi= 10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475 |s2cid= 148145948 |issn=1939-2206}}</ref><ref name="0CBv8">{{Cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/viewfromfoothill0000mull|url-access= registration|page= [https://archive.org/details/viewfromfoothill0000mull/page/504 504]|title=A View From The Foothills: The Diaries of Chris Mullin |last=Mullin |first= Chris |date= 1 October 2010 |publisher= Profile Books |isbn= 978-1-84765-186-0 |language=en}}</ref> A United Nations investigation concluded that the crime of genocide was {{qi|conceived, planned and perpetrated by the Somali Government against the Isaaq people}}.<ref name="Mburu">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7w8VAQAAIAAJ |title=Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)|last1=Mburu|first1=Chris|last2=Rights|first2=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human|last3=Office|first3=United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country|date=1 January 2002|publisher=s.n.|language=en}}</ref> The number of civilian casualties is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000 according to various sources,<ref name="Peifer">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOgOwSXB164C&pg=PA23 |title=Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention|last=Peifer|first=Douglas C.|date=1 May 2009|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-1-4379-1281-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name="taQH4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKWiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 |title=Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa|last=Straus|first=Scott|date=24 March 2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5567-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jones">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZybbAAAAMAAJ|title=Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity|last=Jones|first=Adam|date=22 January 2017|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-191-4|language=en}}</ref> while some reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians.<ref name="eeDVy">{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2014/2/6/investigating-genocide-in-somaliland|title=Somaliland massacre|first=James|last=Reinl|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> Along with the deaths, Barre regime bombarded and razed the second and third largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa and [[Burao]], respectively.<ref name="Eaf0N">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA152 |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|last=Tekle|first=Amare|date=1 January 1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-97-4|language=en}}</ref> This displaced an estimated 400,000 local residents to [[Hart Sheik]] in Ethiopia;<ref name="BXq6o">{{Cite report |title=Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics |url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOMALIA/Resources/conflictinsomalia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326060340/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOMALIA/Resources/conflictinsomalia.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |work=The World Bank |page=10}}</ref><ref name="LbREj">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-s0VcsSW2rAC&pg=PA154 |title=The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent|last=Press|first=Robert M.|date=1 January 1999|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1704-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name="4ZCBy">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WV0TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=The Early Morning Phonecall: Somali Refugees' Remittances|last=Lindley|first=Anna|date=15 January 2013|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-328-4|language=en}}</ref> another 400,000 individuals were also internally displaced.<ref name="sh6vy">{{cite book|last1=Gajraj|first1=Priya|title=Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics|date=2005|publisher=World Bank|page=10|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOMALIA/Resources/conflictinsomalia.pdf}}</ref><ref name="chsTS">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52m9OsGODRUC&pg=PA227 |title=Racism and Ethnicity: Global Debates, Dilemmas, Directions|last=Law|first=Ian|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-1-4058-5912-7|language=en}}</ref><ref name="LQiHc">{{cite journal|title=Africa Watch|journal=Volume 5|date=1993|page=4}}</ref>

The counterinsurgency by the Barre regime against the SNM targeted the rebel group's civilian base of support, escalating into a genocidal onslaught against the Isaaq clan. This led to anarchy and violent campaigns by fragmented militias, which then wrested power at a local level.<ref name="yEPtQ">{{cite journal|first1=Alex|last1=de Waal|first2=Jens|last2=Meierhenrich|first3=Bridget|last3=Conley-Zilkic|title=How Mass Atrocities End: An Evidence-Based Counter-Narrative|journal=Fetcher Forum of World Affairs|volume=36|issue=1|pages=15–31|year=2012|url=http://www.fletcherforum.org/home/2016/9/14/how-mass-atrocities-end-an-evidence-based-counter-narrative}}</ref> The Barre regime's persecution was not limited to the Isaaq, as it targeted other clans such as the [[Hawiye]].<ref name="hWrRd">{{cite book|author=Mohamed Haji Ingiriis|title=The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969–1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzi6CwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-6720-3|pages=236–239}}</ref><ref name="Richards2016p98">{{cite book|author=Rebecca Richards|title=Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vz6gCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-00466-0|pages=98–100 with footnotes}}</ref> The Barre regime collapsed in January 1991. Thereafter, as the political situation in Somaliland stabilised, the displaced people returned to their homes, the militias were demobilised or incorporated into the army, and tens of thousands of houses and businesses were reconstructed from rubble.<ref name="oksO0">{{cite book|title=Somaliland: Democratisation and Its Discontents|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UmoWAQAAIAAJ |year=2003|publisher= International Crisis Group| page= 6| access-date= 15 May 2017}}</ref>