Editing Social science (section)

==Methodology==

===Social research===
{{Main|Social research}}
The origin of the survey can be traced back at least as early as the [[Domesday Book]] in 1086,<ref>A.H. Halsey (2004), ''A history of sociology in Britain: science, literature, and society'', p. 34</ref><ref>Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell (1970), ''A new dictionary of sociology'', p. 201</ref> while some scholars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the publication of [[John Graunt]]'s ''Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality''.<ref>Willcox, Walter (1938) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400906 ''The Founder of Statistics''.]</ref> Social research began most intentionally, however, with the [[positivist]] [[philosophy of science]] in the 19th century.

In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines that share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from [[census]] survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and marketing and [[market research]].

Social research methods may be divided into two broad schools:
* [[Quantitative method|Quantitative designs]] approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims.
* [[Qualitative research|Qualitative designs]] emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality.

Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or [[statistical hypothesis testing]]. A [[mathematical model]] uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). A ''mathematical model'' is "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing [[system]] (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form".<ref>Eykhoff, Pieter ''System Identification: Parameter and State Estimation'', Wiley & Sons, (1974). {{ISBN|978-0-471-24980-1}}</ref> Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to [[dynamical systems]], [[statistical model]]s, [[differential equations]], or [[Game theory|game theoretic models]].

These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an ''integrated whole'' can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships that are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. A [[dynamical system]] modeled as a [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[formal system|formalization]] has a fixed "rule" that describes the time dependence of a point's position in its [[ambient space]]. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The ''evolution rule'' of the dynamical system is a [[function (mathematics)|fixed rule]] that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is [[Deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]]: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.

Social scientists often conduct [[program evaluation]], which is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs,<ref>Administration for Children and Families (2010) ''[http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/other_resrch/pm_guide_eval/index.html The Program Manager's Guide to Evaluation]. Chapter 2: What is program evaluation?''.</ref> particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing the intended effect. While program evaluation first focuses around this definition, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.<ref>{{citation |last=Shackman |first=Gene |title=What Is Program Evaluation: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=The Global Social Change Research Project |ssrn=3060080 |date=February 11, 2018 |type=Presentation Slides}}<!-- it has since been updated --></ref>

===Theory===
{{Main|Social theory}}
Some social theorists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers espouse social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:
* [[Critical theory]] is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines.
* [[Dialectical materialism]] is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the materialism of Feuerbach.
* [[Feminist theory]] is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse; it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.
* [[Marxist philosophy|Marxist theories]], such as [[Proletarian revolution|revolutionary theory]], [[scientific socialism]], and [[Class conflict|class theory]], cover work in philosophy that is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or is written by Marxists.
* [[Phronetic social science]] is a theory and methodology for doing social science focusing on ethics and political power, based on a contemporary interpretation of Aristotelian phronesis.
* [[Post-colonialism|Post-colonial theory]] is a reaction to the cultural legacy of colonialism.
* [[Postmodernism]] refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.
* [[Rational choice theory]] is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behaviour.
* [[Social constructionism]] considers how social phenomena develop in social contexts.
* [[Structuralism]] is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts.
* [[Structural functionalism]] is a sociological paradigm that addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.

Other fringe social theorists delve into the alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:
* [[Anti-intellectualism]] describes a sentiment of critique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits.
* [[Antiscience]] is a position critical of science and the scientific method.

===Recursivity===
Authors use the concept of ''recursivity'' to foreground the situation in which social scientists find themselves when producing knowledge about the world they are always already part of.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bourdieu |first=Pierre |year=1992 |title=Double Bind et Conversion |journal=Pour Une Anthropologie Réflexive |publisher=Le Seuil |publication-place=Paris}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Giddens |first=Anthony |title=Social Theory and Modern Sociology |publisher=Polity Press |year=1987}}</ref> According to Audrey Alejandro, "as social scientists, the recursivity of our condition deals with the fact that we are both subjects (as discourses are the medium through which we analyse) and objects of the academic discourses we produce (as we are social agents belonging to the world we analyse)."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alejandro |first=Audrey |date=2021 |title=Reflexive discourse analysis: A methodology for the practice of reflexivity |journal=European Journal of International Relations |volume=27 |issue=1 |page=171 |doi=10.1177/1354066120969789 |doi-access=free }}</ref> From this basis, she identifies in recursivity a fundamental challenge in the production of emancipatory knowledge which calls for the exercise of [[Reflexivity (social theory)|reflexive]] efforts:

{{blockquote|we are socialised into discourses and dispositions produced by the socio-political order we aim to challenge, a socio-political order that we may, therefore, reproduce unconsciously while aiming to do the contrary. The recursivity of our situation as scholars – and, more precisely, the fact that the dispositional tools we use to produce knowledge about the world are themselves produced by this world – both evinces the vital necessity of implementing reflexivity in practice and poses the main challenge in doing so.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Alejandro |first=Audrey |date=2021 |title=Reflexive discourse analysis: A methodology for the practice of reflexivity |journal=European Journal of International Relations |volume=27 |issue=1 |page=154 |doi=10.1177/1354066120969789 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}