Editing Racial discrimination (section)

== Effects on health ==
{{main|Race and health}}
Studies have shown an association between reported racial discrimination and adverse physical and mental health outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pascoe|first1=EA|last2=Smart Richman|first2=L|title=Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|date=July 2009|volume=135|issue=4|pages=531–54|pmid=19586161|doi=10.1037/a0016059|pmc=2747726}}</ref> This evidence has come from multiple countries, including the [[United States]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=David R.|last2=Mohammed|first2=Selina A.|title=Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research|journal=Journal of Behavioral Medicine|date=22 November 2008|volume=32|issue=1|pages=20–47|doi=10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0|pmid=19030981|pmc=2821669}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Landrine|first1=H.|author-link1=Hope Landrine|last2=Klonoff|first2=E. A.|title=The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences|journal=Journal of Black Psychology|date=1 May 1996|volume=22|issue=2|pages=144–168|doi=10.1177/00957984960222002|s2cid=145535500}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sellers|first1=Robert M.|last2=Copeland-Linder|first2=Nikeea|last3=Martin|first3=Pamela P.|last4=Lewis|first4=R. L'Heureux|title=Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|date=June 2006|volume=16|issue=2|pages=187–216|doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00128.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=David R.|last2=Neighbors|first2=Harold W.|last3=Jackson|first3=James S.|title=Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings From Community Studies|journal=American Journal of Public Health|date=February 2003|volume=93|issue=2|pages=200–208|doi=10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200|pmid=12554570|pmc=1447717}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wallace|first1=Stephanie|last2=Nazroo|first2=James|author-link2=James Nazroo|last3=B?cares|first3=Laia|title=Cumulative Effect of Racial Discrimination on the Mental Health of Ethnic Minorities in the United Kingdom|journal=American Journal of Public Health|date=July 2016|volume=106|issue=7|pages=1294–1300|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2016.303121|pmid=27077347|pmc=4984732}}</ref> and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harris|first1=Ricci|last2=Tobias|first2=Martin|last3=Jeffreys|first3=Mona|last4=Waldegrave|first4=Kiri|last5=Karlsen|first5=Saffron|last6=Nazroo|first6=James|title=Effects of self-reported racial discrimination and deprivation on Māori health and inequalities in New Zealand: cross-sectional study|journal=The Lancet|date=June 2006|volume=367|issue=9527|pages=2005–2009|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68890-9|pmid=16782491|s2cid=39737090|hdl=1983/da95cbcd-a090-4373-b20a-ccde6b392a06|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Racism in healthcare system ===
Racial bias exists in the medical field affecting the way patients are treated and the way they are diagnosed. There are instances where patients’ words are not taken seriously, an example would be the recent case with [[Serena Williams]]. After the birth of her daughter via C-section, the tennis player began to feel pain and shortness of breath. It took her several times to convince the nurse they actually took her self-said symptoms seriously. Had she not been persistent and demanded a CT scan, which showed a clot resulting in blood thinning, Williams might have not been alive.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/08/07/beyonce-serena-williams-open-up-about-potentially-fatal-childbirths-a-problem-especially-for-black-mothers/|title=Beyoncé, Serena Williams open up about potentially fatal childbirths, a problem especially for black mothers|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=2018-10-14}}</ref> This is just one of hundreds of cases where [[systemic racism]] can affect women of color in pregnancy complications.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/pregnancy-relatedmortality.htm|title=Pregnancy-Related Deaths {{!}} Pregnancy {{!}} Reproductive Health {{!}} CDC|date=2018-05-09|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2018-10-14}}</ref>

One of the factors that lead to higher mortality rates amongst black mothers is the poorly conditioned hospitals and lack of standard healthcare facilities.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Howell EA, Egorova N, Balbierz A, Zeitlin J, Hebert PL | title = Black-white differences in severe maternal morbidity and site of care | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 214 | issue = 1 | pages = 122.e1–7 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26283457 | pmc = 4698019 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2015.08.019 }}</ref> Along with having deliveries done in underdeveloped areas, the situation becomes complicated when the pain dealt by patients are not taken seriously by healthcare providers. Pain heard from patients of color are underestimated by doctors compared to pain told by patients who are white<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoffman KM, Trawalter S, Axt JR, Oliver MN | title = Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 113 | issue = 16 | pages = 4296–301 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27044069 | pmc = 4843483 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1516047113 | bibcode = 2016PNAS..113.4296H | doi-access = free }}</ref> leading them to misdiagnose.

Many say that the education level of people affect whether or not they admit to healthcare facilities, leaning to the argument that people of color purposefully avoid hospitals compared to white counterparts{{Citation needed|reason=An insufficient heinonline-reference was cited and removed. Please add a sufficient source.|date=February 2022}} however, this is not the case. Even Serena Williams, a well-known athlete, was not taken seriously when she described her pain. It is true that the experiences of patients in hospital settings influence whether or not they return to healthcare facilities. Black people are less likely to admit to hospitals however those that are admitted have longer stays than white people<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ferraro|first1=K. F.|last2=Thorpe|first2=R. J.|last3=McCabe|first3=G. P.|last4=Kelley-Moore|first4=J. A.|last5=Jiang|first5=Z.|date=2006-11-01|title=The Color of Hospitalization Over the Adult Life Course: Cumulative Disadvantage in Black and White?|journal=The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences|language=en|volume=61|issue=6|pages=S299–S306|doi=10.1093/geronb/61.6.S299|issn=1079-5014|pmid=17114309|pmc=2637414}}</ref>

The longer hospitalization of black patients does not improve care conditions, it makes it worse,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kahn|first=Katherine L.|date=1994-04-20|title=Health Care for Black and Poor Hospitalized Medicare Patients|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=271|issue=15|pages=1169–74|doi=10.1001/jama.1994.03510390039027|pmid=8151874|issn=0098-7484}}</ref> especially when treated poorly by faculty. Not a lot of minorities are admitted into hospitals and those that are receive poor conditioned treatment and care. This discrimination results in misdiagnosis and medical mistakes that lead to high death rates.

Although the [[Medicaid]] program was passed to ensure African Americans and other minorities received the healthcare treatment they deserved and to limit discrimination in hospital facilities, there still seems to be an underlying cause for the low number of black patients admitted to hospitals, like not receiving the proper dosage of medication.{{Citation needed|reason=An insufficient heinonline-reference was cited and removed. Please add a sufficient source.|date=February 2022}} Infant mortality rates and life expectancies of minorities are much lower than that of white people in the United States. Illnesses like cancer and heart diseases are more prevalent in minorities, which is one of the factors for the high mortality rate in the group.<ref name = "Riley_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Riley WJ | title = Health disparities: gaps in access, quality and affordability of medical care | journal = Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association | volume = 123 | pages = 167–72; discussion 172–4 | date = 2012 | pmid = 23303983 | pmc = 3540621 }}</ref> however are not treated accordingly.

Although programs like Medicaid exists to support minorities, there still seems to be a large number of people who are not insured. This financial drawback discourages people in the group to go to hospitals and doctors offices.<ref name = "Riley_2012" />

Financial and cultural influences can impact the way patients are treated by their healthcare providers. When doctors have a bias on a patient, it can lead to the formation of stereotypes, impacting the way they view their patient's data and diagnosis, affecting the treatment plan they implement.<ref name = "Riley_2012" />