Editing Porcelain (section)

=== European porcelain ===
[[File:Lettre du pere Entrecolles 1712 du Halde 1735.jpg|thumb|left|Section of a letter from [[François Xavier d'Entrecolles]] about Chinese porcelain manufacturing techniques, 1712, re-published by [[Jean-Baptiste Du Halde]] in 1735]]
Imported Chinese porcelains were held in such great esteem in Europe that in English ''[[wikt:china|china]]'' became a commonly used synonym for the Italian-derived ''porcelain''. The first mention of porcelain in Europe is in ''[[Il Milione]]'' by [[Marco Polo]] in the 13th century.<ref>cap. CLVIII dell'edizione a cura di L.F. Benedetto, 1928; cap. 153 dell'edizione a cura di V. Pizzorusso Bertolucci</ref> Apart from copying Chinese porcelain in ''[[faience]]'' ([[Tin-glazed pottery|tin glazed]] [[earthenware]]), the soft-paste [[Medici porcelain]] in 16th-century [[Florence]] was the first real European attempt to reproduce it, with little success.

Early in the 16th century, Portuguese traders returned home with samples of kaolin, which they discovered in China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares. However, the Chinese techniques and composition used to manufacture porcelain were not yet fully understood.<ref name="temple" /> Countless experiments to produce porcelain had unpredictable results and met with failure.<ref name="temple" /> In the German state of [[Saxony]], the search concluded in 1708 when [[Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]] produced a hard, white, translucent type of porcelain specimen with a combination of ingredients, including kaolin and [[alabaster]], mined from a Saxon mine in [[Colditz]].<ref name=burns /><ref name=richards>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=Sarah|title=Eighteenth-century ceramic: Products for a civilised society|year=1999|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=978-0-7190-4465-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eighteenthcentur00sara/page/23 23]–26|url=https://archive.org/details/eighteenthcentur00sara|url-access=registration}}</ref> It was a closely guarded trade secret of the Saxon enterprise.<ref name=richards /><ref>{{cite book|last=Wardropper|first=Ian|title=News from a radiant future: Soviet porcelain from the collection of Craig H. and Kay A. Tuber|year=1992|publisher=Art Institute of Chicago|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-86559-106-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-J_fF8zgpMC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202180418/https://books.google.com/books?id=E-J_fF8zgpMC|archive-date=2017-12-02}}</ref>

In 1712, many of the elaborate Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets were revealed throughout Europe by the French [[Jesuit]] father [[Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles]] and soon published in the ''Lettres édifiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jésuites''.<ref name=Entrecolles1 /> The secrets, which d'Entrecolles read about and witnessed in China, were now known and began seeing use in Europe.<ref name=Entrecolles1>{{•}}Baghdiantz McAbe, Ina (2008). ''[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Orientalism_in_Early_Modern_France/WWatAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA220&printsec=frontcover Orientalism in Early Modern France]''. Oxford: Berg Publishing, p. 220. {{ISBN|978-1-84520-374-0}}<br />{{•}}Finley, Robert (2010). ''The pilgrim art. Cultures of porcelain in world history''. University of California Press, p. 18. {{ISBN|978-0-520-24468-9}}<br />{{•}}Kerr, R. & Wood, N. (2004). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mabcHwmAD5oC Joseph Needham : Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5 Chemistry and Chemical Technology : Part 12 Ceramic Technology]''. Cambridge University Press, p. 36-7. {{ISBN|0-521-83833-9}}. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801073141/https://books.google.com/books?id=mabcHwmAD5oC |date=August 1, 2016 }}.<br />{{•}}{{cite book|last=Zhang|first=Xiping|title=Following the steps of Matteo Ricci to China|year=2006|publisher=China Intercontinental Press|location=Beijing|isbn=978-7-5085-0982-2|page=168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_u2P83LgGUC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528183621/http://books.google.com/books?id=o_u2P83LgGUC|archive-date=2013-05-28}}<br />{{•}}{{cite book|last=Burton|first=William|year=1906|pages=47–48|title=Porcelain, Its Nature, Art and Manufacture|location=London|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924089530079#page/n59/mode/2up/ |publisher= B.T. Batsford}}</ref>

==== Meissen ====
[[File:Teller Schwanenservice.jpg|thumb|left|[[Meissen porcelain|Meissen]] plate from the famous [[Swan Service]] made for Count [[Heinrich von Brühl|Brühl]], minister to king [[Augustus III of Poland]], 1737-1742]]
Von Tschirnhaus along with [[Johann Friedrich Böttger]] were employed by [[Augustus II the Strong|Augustus II]], [[King of Poland]] and [[Elector of Saxony]], who sponsored their work in [[Dresden]] and in the town of [[Meissen]]. Tschirnhaus had a wide knowledge of science and had been involved in the European quest to perfect porcelain manufacture when, in 1705, Böttger was appointed to assist him in this task. Böttger had originally been trained as a pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical research, he claimed to have known the secret of transmuting dross into gold, which attracted the attention of Augustus. Imprisoned by Augustus as an incentive to hasten his research, Böttger was obliged to work with other alchemists in the futile search for transmutation and was eventually assigned to assist Tschirnhaus.<ref name=burns>{{cite book|last=Burns|first=William E.|title=Science in the enlightenment: An encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=ABC-Clio|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-1-57607-886-0|pages=38–39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4H9_Zvp80nAC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120134818/https://books.google.com/books?id=4H9_Zvp80nAC|archive-date=2015-11-20}}</ref> One of the first results of the collaboration between the two was the development of a red stoneware that resembled that of [[Yixing clay|Yixing]].

A workshop note records that the first specimen of hard, white and vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the time, the research was still being supervised by Tschirnhaus; however, he died in October of that year. It was left to Böttger to report to Augustus in March 1709 that he could make porcelain. For this reason, credit for the European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than Tschirnhaus.<ref>Gleeson, Janet. ''The Arcanum'', a short history on the greed, obsession, murder and betrayal that led to the creation of Meissen porcelain. Bantam Books, London, 1998.</ref>

The [[Meissen porcelain|Meissen factory]] was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze suitable for use with Böttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures of up to {{convert|1400|°C|°F|0}} to achieve translucence. Meissen porcelain was ''once-fired'', or ''green-fired''. It was noted for its great resistance to [[thermal shock]]; a visitor to the factory in Böttger's time reported having seen a white-hot teapot being removed from the kiln and dropped into cold water without damage. Although widely disbelieved this has been replicated in modern times.<ref>BBC4 How it works: Ep 3. Ceramics how they work 16 Apr 2012</ref>

==== Russian porcelain ====
In 1744, [[Elizabeth of Russia]] signed an agreement to establish the first porcelain manufactory; previously it had to be imported. The technology of making "white gold" was carefully hidden by its creators. [[Peter the Great]] had tried to reveal the "big porcelain secret", and sent an agent to the Meissen factory, and finally hired a porcelain master from abroad.<ref>[http://www.kstu.ru/article.jsp?id_e=78453&id=5657 History of Russian inventions. Porcelain. (In Russian).]</ref> This relied on the research of the Russian scientist [[Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov]]. His development of porcelain manufacturing technology was not based on secrets learned through third parties, but was the result of painstaking work and careful analysis. Thanks to this, by 1760, [[Imperial Porcelain Factory, Saint Petersburg]] became a major European factories producing tableware, and later porcelain figurines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bestwonderstore.com/2020/07/09/history-of-russian-porcelain-from-its-origins-to-the-present-day/ |title=History of Russian porcelain: from its origins to the present day. |access-date=2020-09-23 |archive-date=2020-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001205943/https://bestwonderstore.com/2020/07/09/history-of-russian-porcelain-from-its-origins-to-the-present-day/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Eventually other factories opened: Gardner porcelain, [[Dulyovo porcelain works|Dulyovo]] (1832), Kuznetsovsky porcelain, Popovsky porcelain, and [[Gzhel]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

During the twentieth century, under Soviet governments, ceramics continued to be a popular artform, supported by the state, with an increasingly propagandist role.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lobanov-Rostovsky |first=Nina |date=1989 |title=Soviet Propaganda Porcelain |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1503986 |journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts |volume=11 |pages=126–141 |jstor=1503986 |issn=0888-7314}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Crichton-Miller |first=Emma |title=The tale of Russia's revolutionary ceramics {{!}} Blog {{!}} Royal Academy of Arts |url=https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/article/magazine-the-tale-of-russias-revolutionary-ceramics |access-date=2022-03-03 |website=www.royalacademy.org.uk}}</ref> One artist, who worked at the [[Baranovsky Porcelain Factory]] and at the [[Experimental Ceramic and Artistic Plant i|Experimental Ceramic and Artistic Plant]] in Kyiv, was [[Oksana Zhnikrup]], whose porcelain figures of the ballet and the circus were widely known.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Porcelain Pop Art by Oksana Zhnikrup |url=http://en.uartlib.org/exclusive/porcelain-pop-art-by-oksana-zhnikrup/ |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Ukrainian Art Library |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Soft paste porcelain ====
[[File:Jar MET DP168331 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Capodimonte porcelain]] jar with three figures of [[Pulcinella]] from the [[commedia dell'arte]], soft-paste, 1745–50.]]
[[File:Chantilly porcelain 1750 1760.jpg|thumb|[[Chantilly porcelain]], soft-paste, 1750-1760]]
{{Main|Soft-paste porcelain}}
The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass ([[frit]]) were called ''Frittenporzellan'' in Germany and ''frita'' in Spain.  In France they were known as ''pâte tendre'' and in England as "soft-paste".<ref>Honey, W.B., ''European Ceramic Art'', Faber and Faber, 1952, p.533</ref> They appear to have been given this name because they do not easily retain their shape in the wet state, or because they tend to slump in the kiln under high temperature, or because the body and the glaze can be easily scratched.

=====France=====
Experiments at [[Rouen]] produced the earliest soft-paste in France, but the first important French soft-paste porcelain was made at the [[Saint-Cloud factory]] before 1702. Soft-paste factories were established with the [[Chantilly porcelain|Chantilly manufactory]] in 1730 and at [[Mennecy]] in 1750. The [[Vincennes porcelain factory]] was established in 1740, moving to larger premises at [[Manufacture nationale de Sèvres|Sèvres]]<ref>Munger, Jeffrey (October 2004). "[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sevr/hd_sevr.htm Sèvres Porcelain in the Nineteenth Century]". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 31 October 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903081028/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sevr/hd_sevr.htm|date=September 3, 2016}}</ref> in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of imperfections than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain in the leading position in France and throughout the whole of Europe in the second half of the 18th century.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/porf/hd_porf.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508063931/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/porf/hd_porf.htm |date=May 8, 2016 }}</ref>

=====Italy=====
[[Doccia porcelain]] of [[Florence]] was founded in 1735 and remains in production, unlike [[Capodimonte porcelain]] which was moved from [[Naples]] to [[Madrid]] by [[Charles III of Spain|its royal owner]], after producing from 1743 to 1759. After a gap of 15 years [[Naples porcelain]] was produced from 1771 to 1806, specializing in [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] styles. All these were very successful, with large outputs of high-quality wares. In and around [[Venice]], Francesco Vezzi was producing hard-paste from around 1720 to 1735; survivals of [[Vezzi porcelain]] are very rare, but less so than from the Hewelke factory, which only lasted from 1758 to 1763. The soft-paste [[Cozzi porcelain|Cozzi factory]] fared better, lasting from 1764 to 1812. The [[Le Nove porcelain|Le Nove factory]] produced from about 1752 to 1773, then was revived from 1781 to 1802.<ref>Battie, 102-105: Le Corbellier, 1-29</ref>

=====England=====
The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the [[Royal Society]] in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a [[patent]] on a porcelain containing bone ash. This was the first [[bone china]], subsequently perfected by [[Josiah Spode]].  [[William Cookworthy]] discovered deposits of kaolin in [[Cornwall]], and his [[Plymouth Porcelain|factory at Plymouth]], established in 1768, used kaolin and [[china stone]] to make hard-paste porcelain with a body composition similar to that of the Chinese porcelains of the early 18th century. But the great success of English ceramics in the 18th century was based on soft-paste porcelain, and refined earthenwares such as [[creamware]], which could compete with porcelain, and had devastated the [[faience]] industries of France and other continental countries by the end of the century.  Most English porcelain from the late 18th century to the present is bone china.

In the twenty-five years after Briand's demonstration, a number of factories were founded in England to make soft-paste tableware and figures:
* [[Chelsea porcelain factory|Chelsea]] (1743)<ref>'Science Of Early English Porcelain.' I.C. Freestone. ''Sixth Conference and Exhibition of the European Ceramic Society''. Vol.1 Brighton, 20–24 June 1999, p.11-17</ref><ref>'The Sites Of The Chelsea Porcelain Factory.' E.Adams. ''Ceramics'' (1), 55, 1986.</ref>
* [[Bow porcelain factory|Bow]] (1745)<ref>{{cite web|title=Bow|url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ceramics/pages/subcategory.asp?subcat_id=725|publisher=Museum of London|access-date=31 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203191921/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ceramics/pages/subcategory.asp?subcat_id=725|archive-date=3 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bow porcelain bowl, painted by Thomas Craft|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_I-62|publisher=British Museum|access-date=31 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204072816/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/b/bow_porcelain_bowl,_painted_by.aspx|archive-date=4 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="british-history.ac.uk">{{cite web|title=Bow porcelain|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=22166|work=British History Online|publisher=University of London & History of Parliament Trust|access-date=31 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203183828/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=22166|archive-date=3 December 2011}}</ref>
* St James's (1748)<ref name="british-history.ac.uk" /><ref>{{cite web|title=St James's (Charles Gouyn)|url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ceramics/pages/subcategory.asp?subcat_id=727&subcat_name=St+James%27s+%28Charles+Gouyn%29|publisher=Museum of London|access-date=31 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203202942/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ceramics/pages/subcategory.asp?subcat_id=727&subcat_name=St+James%27s+%28Charles+Gouyn%29|archive-date=3 December 2011}}</ref>
* [[Bristol porcelain]] (1748)
* [[Longton Hall]] (1750)<ref>Ceramic Figureheads. Pt. 3. William Littler And The Origins Of Porcelain In Staffordshire. ''Cookson Mon. Bull. Ceram. Ind.'' (550), 1986.</ref>
* [[Royal Crown Derby]] (1750 or 1757)<ref>{{cite web|title=The History of Royal Crown Derby |url=http://www.royalcrownderby.co.uk/history|publisher=Royal Crown Derby|access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120206195707/http://www.thepotteries.org/features/royal_crown_derby1956.htm History of Royal Crown Derby Co Ltd, from "British Potters and Potteries Today", publ 1956]</ref>
* [[Royal Worcester]] (1751)
* [[Lowestoft porcelain]] (1757)<ref>'The Lowestoft Porcelain Factory, and the Chinese Porcelain Made for the European Market during the Eighteenth Century.' L. Solon. ''The Burlington Magazine''. No. 6. Vol.II. August 1906.</ref>
* [[Wedgwood]] (1759)
* [[Spode]] (1767)