Editing Paul Gauguin (section)

=== Marquesas Islands ===
[[File:Paul Gauguin - Maison du Jouir - RF 2723.jpg|thumb|400px|center|Door lintel at ''Maison du Jouir'', 1901, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
[[File:Atuona - Maison du Jouir (1).JPG|right|thumb|Reconstruction of Gauguin's home ''Maison du Jouir (House of Pleasure)'' at Atuona, [[Paul Gauguin Cultural Center]]]]

Gauguin had nurtured his plan of settling in the Marquesas ever since seeing a collection of intricately carved Marquesan bowls and weapons in Papeete during his first months in Tahiti.{{sfn|Danielsson|1969|p=25}} However, he found a society that, as in Tahiti, had lost its cultural identity. Of all the Pacific island groups, the Marquesas were the most affected by the import of Western diseases (especially [[tuberculosis]]).<ref name= newadvent /> An 18th-century population of some 80,000 had declined to just 4,000.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=232}} Catholic missionaries held sway and, in their effort to control drunkenness and promiscuity, obliged all native children to attend missionary schools into their teens. French colonial rule was enforced by a [[gendarmerie]] noted for its malevolence and stupidity, while traders, both Western and Chinese, exploited the natives appallingly.{{sfn|Danielsson|1969|p=26}}{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=234}}

Gauguin settled in [[Atuona]] on the island of [[Hiva-Oa]], arriving 16 September 1901.{{efn| Danielsson (1965, p. 235) notes that the day before his boat had put in at [[Nuku Hiva]] island, scene of [[Herman Melville]]'s celebrated ''[[Typee]]'' some 60 years earlier, championing exactly the sort of primitive society for which Gauguin yearned. However, Gauguin was apparently unaware of Melville's book.}} This was the administrative capital of the island group, but considerably less developed than Papeete although there was an efficient and regular steamer service between the two. There was a military doctor but no hospital. The doctor was relocated to Papeete the following February and thereafter Gauguin had to rely on the island's two health care workers, the Vietnamese exile Nguyen Van Cam (Ky Dong), who had settled on the island but had no formal medical training, and the Protestant pastor Paul Vernier, who had studied medicine in addition to theology.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=249}}{{sfn|Mathews|2001|pp=235–236}} Both of these were to become close friends.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|pp=236, 250}}

He bought a plot of land in the center of the town from the Catholic mission, having first ingratiated himself with the local bishop by attending mass regularly. This bishop was Monseigneur [[Rogatien-Joseph Martin]], initially well disposed to Gauguin because he was aware that Gauguin had sided with the Catholic party in Tahiti in his journalism.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=239}}

[[File:Paul Gauguin - Père Paillard - NGA 1963.10.238.jpg|thumb|''Père Paillard (Father Lechery)'', 1902, [[National Gallery of Art]]. Gauguin's lampoon of [[Rogatien-Joseph Martin|Bishop Martin]].]]
Gauguin built a two-floor house on his plot, sturdy enough to survive a later cyclone which washed away most other dwellings in the town. He was helped in the task by the two best Marquesan carpenters on the island, one of them called Tioka, tattooed from head to toe in the traditional Marquesan way (a tradition suppressed by the missionaries). Tioka was a deacon in Vernier's congregation and became Gauguin's neighbour after the cyclone when Gauguin gifted him a corner of his plot. The ground floor was open-air and used for dining and living, while the top floor was used for sleeping and as his studio. The door to the top floor was decorated with a polychrome wood-carved lintel and jambs that still survive in museums. The lintel named the house as ''Maison du Jouir'' (i.e. ''House of Pleasure''), while the jambs echoed his earlier 1889 wood-carving ''[[Soyez amoureuses vous serez heureuses]]'' (i.e. ''Be in Love, You Will Be Happy''). The walls were decorated with, amongst other things, his prized collection of forty-five pornographic photographs he had purchased in Port Said on his way out from France.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=238}}

In the early days at least, until Gauguin found a ''vahine'', the house drew appreciative crowds in the evenings from the natives, who came to stare at the pictures and party half the night away.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=240}} Needless to say, all this did not endear Gauguin to the bishop, still less when Gauguin erected two sculptures he placed at the foot of his steps lampooning the bishop and a servant reputed to be the bishop's mistress,{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=256}} and yet still less when Gauguin later attacked the unpopular missionary school system.<ref>Eisenman p. 170.</ref> The sculpture of the bishop, ''Père Paillard'', is to be found at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, while its pendant piece ''Thérèse'' realized a record $30,965,000 for a Gauguin sculpture at a Christie's New York 2015 sale.<ref>[http://www.christies.com/features/modigliani-nu-couche-reclining-nude-leads-a-night-of-records-in-new-york-6782-3.aspx ''Modigliani’s Nu couché (Reclining Nude) leads a night of records in New York''], Christie's New York, 10 November 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/sculptures-statues-figures/paul-gauguin-therese-5946111-details.aspx?from=salesummary&intObjectID=5946111&sid=5d33e98a-1288-4c63-8fef-f82544cbfbe3 Paul Gauguin, ''Thérèse''], Christie's New York, 9 November 2015.</ref> These were among at least eight sculptures that adorned the house according to a posthumous inventory, most of which are lost today. Together they represented a very public attack on the hypocrisy of the church in sexual matters.<ref>{{cite web|title=Therese|url=http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/sculptures-statues-figures/paul-gauguin-therese-5946111-details.aspx?pos=4&intObjectID=5946111&sid=&page=1&lid=1|publisher=[[Christie's]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Moore|first1=Susan|title=Art Market|magazine=[[Apollo (magazine)|Apollo]]|date=January 2016|volume=158|issue=638|page=72}}</ref>

State funding for the missionary schools had ceased as a result of the [[1901 French law on associations|1901 Associations Bill]] promulgated throughout the French empire.<ref name= newadvent>web Catholic encyclopaedia</ref>{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=239}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Vicariate Apostolic of Marquesas Islands|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09688a.htm|website=newadvent.org|publisher=[[New Advent]]}}</ref> The schools continued with difficulty as private institutions, but these difficulties were compounded when Gauguin established that attendance at any given school was only compulsory within a catchment area of some two and a half miles radius. This led to numerous teenage daughters being withdrawn from the schools (Gauguin called this process "rescuing"). He took as ''vahine'' one such girl, Vaeoho (also called Marie-Rose), the 14-year-old daughter of a native couple who lived in an adjoining valley six miles distant.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|pp=240–241}} This can scarcely have been a pleasant task for her as Gauguin's sores were by then extremely noxious and required daily dressing.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|pp=235–236}} Nevertheless, she lived willingly with him and the following year gave birth to a healthy daughter whose descendants continue to live on the island.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=241}}{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=255}}

[[File:Paul Gauguin - Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa.jpg|thumb|''Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa (Marquesan Man in a Red Cape)'', 1902, Musée d'art moderne et d'art contemporain de Liège]]
By November he had settled into his new home with Vaeoho, a cook (Kahui), two other servants (nephews of Tioka), his dog, Pegau (a play on his initials ''PG''), and a cat. The house itself, although in the center of the town, was set amongst trees and secluded from view. The partying ceased and he began a period of productive work, sending twenty canvases to Vollard the following April.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|pp=241–255}} He had thought he would find new motifs in the Marquesas, writing to Monfreid:<ref name =S243>Szech p. 148.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/letterspaulgaug00gauggoog|title=The Letters of Paul Gauguin to Georges Daniel de Monfreid|date=25 February 1922|publisher=Dodd, Mead and Company|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>{{Blockquote|text= I think in the Marquesas, where it is easy to find models (a thing that is growing more and more difficult in Tahiti), and with new country to explore – with new and more savage subject matter in brief – that I shall do beautiful things. Here my imagination has begun to cool, and then, too, the public has grown so used to Tahiti. The world is so stupid that if one shows it canvases containing new and ''terrible'' elements, Tahiti will become comprehensible and charming. My Brittany pictures are now rose-water because of Tahiti; Tahiti will become eau de Cologne because of the Marquesas.|sign=Paul Gauguin|source= Letter ''LII'' to George Daniel de Monfreid, June 1901}} In fact, his Marquesas work for the most part can only be distinguished from his Tahiti work by experts or by their dates,{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=243}} paintings such as ''Two Women'' remaining uncertain in their location.<ref>{{cite web|title=''Two Women''|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/438001|website=metmuseum.org|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> For Anna Szech, what distinguishes them is their repose and melancholy, albeit containing elements of disquiet. Thus, in the second of two versions of ''Cavaliers sur la Plage (Riders on the Beach)'', gathering clouds and foamy breakers suggest an impending storm while the two distant figures on grey horses echo similar figures in other paintings that are taken to symbolise death.<ref name =S243 />

Gauguin chose to paint landscapes, still lifes, and figure studies at this time, with an eye to Vollard's clientele, avoiding the primitive and lost paradise themes of his Tahiti paintings.<ref name= C312>Childs p. 312.</ref> But there is a significant trio of pictures from this last period that suggest deeper concerns. The first two of these are ''Jeune fille à l'éventail (Young Girl with Fan)'' and  ''Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa (Marquesan Man in a Red Cape)''. The model for ''Jeune fille'' was the red-headed Tohotaua, the daughter of a chieftain on a neighbouring island. The portrait appears to have been taken from [[:commons: File:Louis Grelet - Tohotaua.jpg|a portrait photograph of Tohotaua by Louis Grelet]] that Vernier later sent to Vollard. The model for ''Le sorcier'' may have been Haapuani, an accomplished dancer as well as a feared magician, who was a close friend of Gauguin's and, according to [[Bengt Danielsson]], married to Tohotau.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=244}} Szech notes that the white colour of Tohotau's dress is a symbol of power and death in Polynesian culture, the sitter doing duty for a [[Maohi]] culture as a whole threatened with extinction.<ref name =S243 /> ''Le Sorcier'' appears to have been executed at the same time and depicts a long-haired young man wearing an exotic red cape. The [[androgynous]] nature of the image has attracted critical attention, giving rise to speculation that Gauguin intended to depict a ''[[māhū]]'' (i.e. a [[third gender]] person) rather than a ''taua'' or priest.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=243}}<ref>Eisenman pp. 140–19.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Vargas Llosa|first1=Mario|author-link1=Mario Vargas Llosa|title=The men-women of the Pacific|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/context-comment/articles/men-women-pacific|website=tate.org.uk|publisher=[[Tate Britain]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100743/http://www.tate.org.uk/context-comment/articles/men-women-pacific|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The third picture of the trio is the mysterious and beautiful ''Contes barbares (Primitive Tales)'' featuring Tohotau again at the right. The left figure is [[Meijer de Haan|Jacob Meyer de Haan]], a painter friend of Gauguin's from their Pont-Aven days who had died a few years previously, while the middle figure is again androgynous, identified by some as Haapuani. The Buddha-like pose and the lotus blossoms suggests to Elizabeth Childs that the picture is a meditation on the perpetual cycle of life and the possibility of rebirth.<ref name= C312 /> As these paintings reached Vollard after Gauguin's sudden death, nothing is known about Gauguin's intentions in their execution.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=246}}

In March 1902, the governor of French Polynesia, {{Interlanguage link|Édouard Petit|fr|3=Édouard Petit (écrivain)}}, arrived in the Marquesas to make an inspection. He was accompanied by Édouard Charlier as head of the judicial system. Charlier was an amateur painter who had been befriended by Gauguin when he first arrived as magistrate at Papeete in 1895.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=179}} However their relationship had turned to enmity when Charlier refused to prosecute Gauguin's then ''vahine'' Pau'ura for a number of trivial offences, allegedly housebreaking and theft, she had committed at Puna'auia while Gauguin was away working in Papeete. Gauguin had gone so far as to publish an open letter attacking Charlier about the affair in ''Les Guêpes''.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=211}}{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=212}}{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=213}} Petit, presumably suitably forewarned, refused to see Gauguin to deliver the settlers' protests (Gauguin their spokesman) about the invidious taxation system, which saw most revenue from the Marquesas spent in Papeete.  Gauguin responded in April by refusing to pay his taxes and encouraging the settlers, traders and planters, to do likewise.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=248}}

At around the same time, Gauguin's health began to deteriorate again, revisited by the same familiar constellation of symptoms involving pain in the legs, heart palpitations, and general debility. The pain in his injured ankle grew insupportable and in July he was obliged to order a [[Trap (carriage)|trap]] from Papeete so that he could get about town.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=249}} By September the pain was so extreme that he resorted to [[morphine]] injections. However he was sufficiently concerned by the habit he was developing to turn his syringe set over to a neighbour, relying instead on [[laudanum]]. His sight was also beginning to fail him, as attested by the spectacles he wears in his last known self-portrait. This was actually a portrait commenced by his friend Ky Dong that he completed himself, thus accounting for its uncharacteristic style.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=258}} It shows a man tired and aged, yet not entirely defeated.<ref>{{cite web|title=Self-portrait with glasses, 1903 – Paul Gauguin: Self-Portraits at the Tate Modern|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/8008607/Paul-Gauguin-Self-Portraits-at-the-Tate-Modern.html?image=6|website=telegraph.co.uk| date=17 September 2010 |publisher=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> For a while he considered returning to Europe, to Spain, to get treatment. Monfreid advised him:{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|pp=258–259}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/letterspaulgaug00gauggoog#page/n179/mode/2up|title=The Letters of Paul Gauguin to Georges Daniel de Monfreid – O'Brien (letters to Monfreid) |year=1922 |page=160|publisher=Dodd, Mead and Company }}</ref>{{Blockquote|text= In returning you will risk damaging that process of incubation which is taking place in the public's appreciation of you. At present you are a unique and legendary artist, sending to us from the remote South Seas disconcerting and inimitable works which are the definitive creations of a great man who, in a way, has already gone from this world. Your enemies – and like all who upset the mediocrities you have many enemies – are silent; but they dare not attack you, do not even think of it. You are so far away. You should not return... You are already as unassailable as all the great dead; you already belong to the ''history of art''. |sign= George Daniel Monfreid|source= Letter to Paul Gauguin circa October 1902 }}

In July 1902, Vaeoho, by then seven months pregnant, left Gauguin to return home to her neighbouring valley of Hekeani to have her baby amongst family and friends. She gave birth in September but did not return. Gauguin did not subsequently take another ''vahine''. It was at this time that his quarrel with Bishop Martin over missionary schools reached its height. The local gendarme, Désiré Charpillet, at first friendly to Gauguin, wrote a report to the administrator of the island group, who resided on the neighbouring island of [[Nuku Hiva]], criticizing Gauguin for encouraging natives to withdraw their children from school as well as encouraging settlers to withhold payment of their taxes. As luck would have it, the post of administrator had recently been filled by François Picquenot, an old friend of Gauguin's from Tahiti and essentially sympathetic to him. Picquenot advised Charpillet not to take any action over the schools issue, since Gauguin had the law on his side, but authorised Charpillet to seize goods from Gauguin in lieu of payment of taxes if all else failed.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|pp=255–258}} Possibly prompted by loneliness, and at times unable to paint, Gauguin took to writing.{{sfn|Thomson|1987|p=202}}{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=259}}

[[File:Paul Gauguin - L'Esprit Moderne et le Catholicisme - F 82a, F 82b.jpg|thumb|''L'Esprit Moderne et le Catholicisme'' front and back covers, 1902, [[Saint Louis Art Museum]]]]
In 1901, the manuscript of ''Noa Noa'' that Gauguin had prepared along with woodcuts during his interlude in France was finally published with Morice's poems in book form in the ''[[La Plume]]'' edition (the manuscript itself is now lodged in the Louvre museum). Sections of it (including his account of Teha'amana) had previously been published without woodcuts in 1897 in ''[[La Revue Blanche]]'', while he himself had published extracts in ''Les Guêpes'' while he was editor. The ''La Plume'' edition was planned to include his woodcuts, but he withheld permission to print them on smooth paper as the publishers wished.<ref>{{cite web|title=Noa Noa|url=http://data.bnf.fr/12079829/paul_gauguin_noa_noa/|website=bnf.fr|year=1897|publisher=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]}}</ref> In truth he had grown uninterested in the venture with Morice and never saw a copy, declining an offer of one hundred complimentary copies.<ref>Goddard p. 279.</ref> Nevertheless, its publication inspired him to consider writing other books.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=247}} At the beginning of the year (1902), he had revised an old 1896–97 manuscript, ''L'Esprit Moderne et le Catholicisme'' (''The Modern Spirit and Catholicism''), on the Roman Catholic Church, adding some twenty pages containing insights gleaned from his dealings with Bishop Martin. He sent this text to Bishop Martin, who responded by sending him an illustrated history of the Church. Gauguin returned the book with critical remarks he later published in his autobiographical reminiscences.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|pp=259–262}}<ref>Gauguin (1921), {{Google books|vQsLza-zO10C|Intimate Journals|page= 87|plainurl=}}.</ref> He next prepared a witty and well-documented essay, ''Racontars de Rapin'' (''Tales of a Dabbler'') on critics and art criticism, which he sent for publication to [[André Fontainas]], art critic at the ''Mercure de France'' whose favourable review of ''Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?'' had done much to restore his reputation. Fontainas, however, replied that he dared not publish it. It was not subsequently published until 1951.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=247}}{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=262}}<ref>Gauguin [https://archive.org/stream/letterspaulgaug00gauggoog#page/n183/mode/2up Letter ''LXI'' to Monfreid.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Racontars de Rapindata|url=http://data.bnf.fr/13021324/paul_gauguin_racontars_de_rapin/|website=bnf.fr|year=1951|publisher=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Bertrand|first1=Anne|title=Gauguin le rapin : ""Racontars de rapin, suivi de Art de Papou & chant de Rossignoou"" et ""La lutte pour les peintres""|url=http://www.liberation.fr/livres/1995/02/02/gauguin-le-rapin-racontars-de-rapin-suivi-de-art-de-papou-chant-de-rossignoou-et-la-lutte-pour-les-p_124875|website=liberation.fr|publisher=[[Libération]]|language=fr}}</ref>

On 27 May that year, the steamer service, ''Croix du Sud,'' was shipwrecked off the [[Apataki]] atoll, and for a period of three months the island was left without mail or supplies.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=252}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand|url=http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/lines/unionnz.shtml|website=theshipslist.com}}</ref> When mail service resumed, Gauguin penned an angry attack on Governor Petit in an open letter, complaining amongst other things about the way they had been abandoned following the shipwreck. The letter was published by ''L'Indepéndant'', the successor newspaper to ''Les Guêpes'', that November in Papeete. Petit had in fact followed an independent and pro-native policy, to the disappointment of the Roman Catholic Party, and the newspaper was preparing an attack on him. Gauguin also sent the letter to the ''Mercure de France'', which published a redacted version of it after his death.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=262}} He followed this with a private letter to the head of the ''gendarmerie'' in Papeete, complaining about his own local gendarme Charpillet's excesses in making prisoners labor for him. Danielsson notes that, while these and similar complaints were well-founded, the motivation for them all was wounded vanity and simple animosity. As it happened, the relatively supportive Charpillet was replaced that December by another gendarme, Jean-Paul Claverie, from Tahiti, much less well disposed to Gauguin and who in fact had fined him in his earliest Mataiea days for public indecency, having caught him bathing naked in a local stream following complaints from the missionaries there.{{sfn|Danielsson|1965|p=264}}

His health further deteriorated in December to the extent that he was scarcely able to paint. He began an autobiographical memoir he called ''[[Avant et après]] (Before and After)'' (published in translation in the US as ''Intimate Journals''), which he completed over the next two months.<ref name="Avant et après">{{cite web|url = https://archive.org/details/avanteta00gaug|title = Avant et après: avec les vingt-sept dessins du manuscrit original (1923)|year = 1923|publisher  = [[Internet Archive]]|language = fr}}</ref> The title was supposed to reflect his experiences before and after coming to Tahiti and as tribute to his own grandmother's unpublished memoir ''Past and Future''. His memoir proved to be a fragmented collection of observations about life in Polynesia, his own life, and comments on literature and paintings. He included in it attacks on subjects as diverse as the local ''gendarmerie'', Bishop Martin, his wife Mette and the [[Danes]] in general, and concluded with a description of his personal philosophy conceiving life as an [[existential]] struggle to reconcile opposing binaries.{{sfn|Mathews|2001|p=247-252}}{{efn| In his 2008 book ''Revelation of Modernism: Responses to Cultural Crises in Fin-de-Siècle Painting'', [[Albert Boime]] argued that Gauguin was influenced by the French occult author [[Eliphas Levi]] and develops the thesis that Gauguin's primitivism proved inseparable from his ethnic prejudices and actually contributed to the anti-modernist rejection of modernism, turning it into an ideological weapon again democracy.<ref>{{Google books|WJRAI0pLBEYC|Revelation of Modernism: Responses to Cultural Crises in Fin-de-sie`cle Painting|page=160|plainurl=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mansfield|first1=Elizabeth|title=Albert Boime|url=http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring09/56-spring09/spring09review/70-art-in-an-age-of-civil-struggle-1848-1871-and-revelation-of-modernism-responses-to-cultural-crises-in-fin-de-siecle-painting-both-by-albert-boime|journal=Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide|year=2009|volume=8|issue=1|publisher=[[Association of Historians of Nineteenth-Century Art]]}}</ref>}} Mathews notes two closing remarks as a distillation of his philosophy:{{Blockquote|text= No one is good; no one is evil; everyone is both, in the same way and in different ways. … <br />It is so small a thing, the life of a man, and yet there is time to do great things, fragments of the common task.|sign= Paul Gauguin|source= ''Intimate Journals'', 1903<ref>{{Google books|vEs3AQAAMAAJ|Intimate Journals|page=178|plainurl=}}</ref>}} He sent the manuscript to Fontainas for editing, but the rights reverted to Mette after Gauguin's death, and it was not published until 1918 (in a facsimile edition); the American translation appearing in 1921.<ref>{{cite web|title=Paul Gauguin : Avant et après. Edition originale. Fac-similé du manuscrit. Leipzig, Kurt Wolff, 1918.|url=http://julienmannoni.blogspot.com/2012/02/paul-gauguin-avant-et-apres-edition.html|website=julienmannoni.blogspot.com|date=6 February 2012|publisher=Julien Mannoni livres anciens|language=fr}}</ref>