Editing Netherlands (section)

==Geography==
{{Further|Geography of the Netherlands}}
[[File:2012-NL-prov-relief-3000.jpg|thumb|Relief map of the European Netherlands]]

The European Netherlands has a total area of {{convert|41543|km2|abbr=on}}, including water bodies, and a land area of {{convert|33481|km2|abbr=on}}. The [[Caribbean Netherlands]] has a total area of {{convert|328|km2|abbr=on}}<ref>{{Cite web |author=Central Bureau of Statistics |title=Land – en tuinbouwcijfers |publisher=Government of the Netherlands, Department of Publication and Information|url=https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/imported/documents/2009/36/2009-j29-pub.pdf |issn=1386-9566 |language=nl |year=2009 |page=14 |access-date=6 January 2018}}</ref> It lies between latitudes [[50th parallel north|50°]] and [[54th parallel north|54° N]], and longitudes [[3rd meridian east|3°]] and [[8th meridian east|8° E]].

The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Schiermeier |first1=Quirin |title=Few fishy facts found in climate report |journal=Nature |date=5 July 2010 |volume=466 |issue=170 |pages=170 |doi=10.1038/466170a |pmid=20613812 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and 21% of its population<ref name=milrek>{{cite web |title=Milieurekeningen 2008 |publisher=[[Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek]] |url=http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf |access-date=4 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215002601/http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> below sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of [[foothills]] in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than {{Convert|322|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Vaalserberg]], and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are caused by [[peat]] extraction or achieved through [[land reclamation in the Netherlands|land reclamation]]. Since the late 16th century, large [[polder]] areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include [[Levee|dikes]], canals and pumping stations.

Much of the country was originally formed by the [[estuary|estuaries]] of three large European rivers: the [[Rhine]] (''Rijn''), the [[Meuse]] (''Maas'') and the [[Scheldt]] (''Schelde''), as well as their [[tributary|tributaries]]. The south-western part of the Netherlands is a [[river delta]] of these rivers, the [[Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Haas |first1=Tjalling |last2=van der Valk |first2=Lambertus |last3=Cohen |first3=Kim M. |last4=Pierik |first4=Harm Jan |last5=Weisscher |first5=Steven A. H. |last6=Hijma |first6=Marc P. |last7=van der Spek |first7=Ad J. F. |last8=Kleinhans |first8=Maarten G. |date=February 2019 |title=Long-term evolution of the Old Rhine estuary: Unravelling effects of changing boundary conditions and inherited landscape |journal=The Depositional Record |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=84–108 |doi=10.1002/dep2.56 |issn=2055-4877 |pmc=6743690 |pmid=31543980|bibcode=2019DepRe...5...84D }}</ref>
[[File:Nijlânnermolen Workum.jpg|thumb|Landscape at [[Workum]], [[Friesland]]]]
The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the [[Waal (river)|Waal]], its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. These rivers functioned as a natural barrier between [[fief]]doms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" (''de Grote Rivieren''). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the [[IJssel]] river, discharges into [[IJsselmeer|Lake IJssel]], the former [[Zuiderzee]] ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak [[Dutch Low Saxon]] dialects (except for the province of [[Friesland]], which has its own language).<ref name="international2000">Welschen, Ad: Course ''Dutch Society and Culture'', International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2000–2005.</ref>

=== Geology ===
{{main|Geology of the Netherlands}}

The Netherlands is mostly composed of [[river delta|deltaic]], [[coast]]al and [[Aeolian processes|aeolian]] derived sediments during the [[Pleistocene]] [[glacial]] and [[interglacial]] periods.<ref name="international2000" />

Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the [[Rhine]]-[[Meuse]] river [[estuary]]. In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the [[Last Glacial Period|last ice age]], which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental [[ice sheet]] moved in from the north, it pushed [[moraine]] forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of [[Arnhem]] and [[Nijmegen]] are built on these hills.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Wong |first1=Th.E. |last2=Batjes |first2=D.A.J.|last3=Jager|first3=J. de|year=2007 |title=Geology of the Netherlands |publisher=[[KNAW]] |isbn=978-90-6984-481-7}}</ref>

===Floods===
{{Main|Flood control in the Netherlands|List of floods in the Netherlands|Storm tides of the North Sea}}
[[File:Christmas flood 1717.jpg|thumb|The [[Christmas Flood of 1717]] resulted in the death of thousands.]]

Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.

On 14 December 1287, [[St. Lucia's flood]] affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1485002/Zuiderzee-floods Zuiderzee floods (Netherlands history)]. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.</ref> The [[St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)|St. Elizabeth flood]] of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed [[polder]], replacing it with the {{convert|72|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} ''[[Biesbosch]]'' tidal floodplains. The huge [[North Sea flood of 1953|North Sea flood of February 1953]] caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "[[Delta Works]]", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than 40 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/dutch-delta-works-from-engineering-feat-to-cultural-statement|title=Dutch Delta Works: from engineering feat to cultural statement|first=Ronald|last=Rietveld|date=8 June 2017}}</ref>

[[File:The Netherlands compared to sealevel.png|thumb|left|Map illustrating areas of the Netherlands below sea level]]
The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying [[swamp]]land was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile [[peat]] to contract and ground levels to drop; groundwater levels were lowered to compensate, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Netherlands : Fugros Ground Investigation Links Dutch Subsidence to Former Peat Extraction |journal=MENA Report |date=20 September 2021}}</ref>

To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium [[AD]], villages and farmhouses were built on hills called ''[[terp]]s''. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ''"[[Water board (Netherlands)|waterschappen]]"'' ("water boards") or ''"[[Water board (Netherlands)|hoogheemraadschappen]]"'' ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century [[windmill]]s had come into use to pump water. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous [[polder]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Windmills in Dutch History|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/polders/boekje/history.htm|website=Let.rug.nl|publisher=Rijks Universiteit Groningen|access-date=7 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705084250/http://www.let.rug.nl/polders/boekje/history.htm|archive-date=5 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 1932 the ''[[Afsluitdijk]]'' ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former ''[[Zuiderzee]]'' (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the [[IJsselmeer]] ([[IJssel]] Lake). It became part of the larger [[Zuiderzee Works]] in which four polders totalling {{convert|2500|km2|mi2|0}} were reclaimed from the sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem533nh.htm |publisher=sdu.nl |title=Kerngegevens gemeente Wieringermeer |access-date=21 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106163025/http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem533nh.htm |archive-date=6 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/PROVINCIES/flevoland.htm |publisher=sdu.nl |title=Kerngegevens procincie Flevoland |access-date=21 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226115958/http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/PROVINCIES/flevoland.htm |archive-date=26 December 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from [[climate change]]. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Nickerson |first=Colin |title=Netherlands relinquishes some of itself to the waters |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=5 December 2005 |url=https://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/12/05/holland_goes_beyond_holding_back_the_tide/ |access-date=10 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630210923/http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/12/05/holland_goes_beyond_holding_back_the_tide/ |archive-date=30 June 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Olsthoorn |first=A.A. |author2=Richard S.J. Tol |title=Floods, flood management and climate change in The Netherlands |publisher=Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit |date=February 2001 |url=http://de.scientificcommons.org/16816958 |oclc=150386158 |access-date=10 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022043234/http://de.scientificcommons.org/16816958 |archive-date=22 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tol |first1=Richard S. J. |last2=van der Grijp |first2=Nicolien |last3=Olsthoorn |first3=Alexander A. |last4=van der Werff |first4=Peter E. |title=Adapting to Climate: A Case Study on Riverine Flood Risks in the Netherlands |journal=Risk Analysis |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=575–583 |year=2003 |doi=10.1111/1539-6924.00338 |pmid=12836850|bibcode=2003RiskA..23..575T |url=http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/31872/1/158073.pdf |hdl=1871/31872 |s2cid=1054016}}</ref>

===Delta Works===
{{Main|Delta Works|Flood control in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Karte der Bauwerke des Deltaprojekts.png|thumb|left|The [[Delta Works]] are located in the provinces of [[South Holland]] and [[Zeeland]].]]

After the [[North Sea Flood of 1953|1953 disaster]], the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the [[Maeslantkering]]. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland. This was achieved by raising {{convert|3000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of outer sea-dikes and {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea [[estuary|estuaries]] of Zeeland. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] as one of the [[Wonders of the World#American Society of Civil Engineers|seven wonders of the modern world]].<ref>[http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=2147487305 Seven Wonders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802060056/http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=2147487305 |date=2 August 2010}}. Asce.org (19 July 2010). Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref>

It is anticipated that [[global warming]] will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of {{convert|1.10|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} and a simultaneous land height decline of {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on|0}}. The plan encompasses the reinforcement of existing coastal defences like [[Levee|dike]]s and [[dune]]s with {{convert|1.30|m|ft|abbr=on}} of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the coast, but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The [[Room for the River (Netherlands)|Room for the River plan]] grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.<ref name=NYT021313>{{cite news|title=Going With the Flow|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/arts/design/flood-control-in-the-netherlands-now-allows-sea-water-in.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214132056/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/arts/design/flood-control-in-the-netherlands-now-allows-sea-water-in.html |archive-date=14 February 2013 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=19 February 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=13 February 2013|author=Kimmelman, Michael}}</ref>

===Climate change===
{{main|Climate change in the Netherlands}}
The Netherlands is already affected by [[climate change]]. The average temperature in the Netherlands rose by more than 2&nbsp;°C from 1901 to 2020.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://cdn.knmi.nl/knmi/asc/klimaatsignaal21/KNMI_Klimaatsignaal21.pdf |title=Klimaatsignaal 21: hoe het klimaat in Nederland snel verandert |publisher=KNMI |year=2021 |location=De Bilt |pages=11 |language=nl |author=Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut}}</ref> Climate change has resulted in increased frequency of droughts and heatwaves. Because significant portions of the Netherlands have been [[Land reclamation in the Netherlands|reclaimed from the sea]] or otherwise are very near sea level, the Netherlands is very vulnerable to [[sea level rise]].

The Netherlands has the fourth largest [[List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita|greenhouse gas emissions per capita]] of the European Union,<ref>{{Cite news |title=EEA greenhouse gases — data viewer — European Environment Agency |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/data-viewers/greenhouse-gases-viewer |access-date=2023-04-04 |newspaper=European Environment Agency |language=en}}</ref> in part due to the large number of cows.<ref name="The Economist">{{Cite news |title=The cucumber Saudis: how the Dutch got too good at farming |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/03/23/the-cucumber-saudis-how-the-dutch-got-too-good-at-farming |access-date=2023-04-04 |issn=0013-0613 |url-access=registration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323153856/https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/03/23/the-cucumber-saudis-how-the-dutch-got-too-good-at-farming |archive-date=2023-03-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Dutch government has set goals to lower emissions in the next few decades. The Dutch response to climate change is driven by a number of unique factors, including larger [[green recovery]] plans by the European Union in the face of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands|COVID-19]] and a [[climate change litigation]] case, [[State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation]], which created mandatory [[climate change mitigation]] through emissions reductions 25% below 1990 levels.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|date=20 December 2019|title=Netherlands climate change: Court orders bigger cuts in emissions|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50864569|language=English|newspaper=BBC}}</ref><ref name="AP">{{cite web|date=20 December 2019|title=Activists cheer victory in landmark Dutch climate case|url=https://apnews.com/5534fe18ac5352ba43c74c9a64d6a20a|language=English|newspaper=Associated Press}}</ref> In 2021 [[Greenhouse gas|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] were down 14% compared to 1990 levels.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Statistiek |first=Centraal Bureau voor de |title=Hoe groot is onze broeikasgasuitstoot? |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/dossier/dossier-broeikasgassen/hoe-groot-is-onze-broeikasgasuitstoot-wat-is-het-doel- |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek |language=nl-NL}}</ref> The goal of the Dutch government is to reduce emissions in 2030 by 49%.<ref>{{cite web|date=2019|title=Long-term strategy on climate mitigation – The Netherlands|url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/LTS1_Netherlands.pdf|access-date=16 May 2021|website=unfccc}}</ref>

===Nature===
{{Further|List of national parks of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Relax - Flickr - Rob Oo.jpg|thumb|[[Harbor seal|Common seals]] off the coast of [[Terschelling]], a [[Wadden Sea]] island]]
The Netherlands has 21 national parks<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://nationaalpark.nl/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=Nationaal Park |language=nl-NL}}</ref> and hundreds of other nature reserves. Most of these are owned by [[Staatsbosbeheer]], the national department for [[forestry]] and [[Habitat conservation|nature conservation]] and [[Vereniging Natuurmonumenten|Natuurmonumenten]], a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.natuurmonumenten.nl/over-natuurmonumenten|title=Over Natuurmonumenten|website=Natuurmonumenten}}</ref> The [[Wadden Sea]] in the north, with its [[tidal flat]]s and [[wetland]]s, is rich in [[biodiversity|biological diversity]], and is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=|first=|title=Wadden Sea |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1314/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> The [[Eastern Scheldt]], formerly the northeast [[estuary]] of the river [[Scheldt]] was designated a national park in 2002, making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of {{convert|370|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.

[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Atlantic mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |doi-access=free |pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref> In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beekbergerwoud - Natuurgebied |url=https://www.natuurmonumenten.nl/natuurgebieden/beekbergerwoud |access-date=13 June 2022 |website=Natuurmonumenten |language=nl}}</ref> These woods were planted on [[heath (habitat)#Anthropogenic heaths|anthropogenic heaths]] and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) ([[Veluwe]]). The Netherlands had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G}}</ref>

[[Nitrogen pollution]] is a problem.<ref name="The Economist"/> The number of flying insects in the Netherlands has dropped by 75% since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.consoglobe.com/insectes-disparaitre-cg |title=Les insectes sont bel et bien en train de disparaître |language=fr |trans-title=Insects are well and truly disappearing |first=Paul |last=Malo |date=18 November 2019 |website=consoglobe.com}}</ref>

===Caribbean islands===
{{Main|Bonaire|Sint Eustatius|Saba (island)|Caribbean Netherlands}}
In the [[Lesser Antilles]] islands of the Caribbean, the territories of [[Curaçao]], [[Aruba]] and [[Sint Maarten]] have a constituent country status within the wider Kingdom of the Netherlands. Another three territories which make up the [[Caribbean Netherlands]] are designated as special municipalities. The Caribbean Netherlands have maritime borders with [[Anguilla]], [[Curaçao]], France ([[Saint Barthélemy]]), [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] and [[Venezuela]].<ref name="Caribbean-Borders">{{cite web |title=Maritime boundaries of the Caribbean part of the Kingdom |url=https://english.defensie.nl/topics/hydrography/maritime-limits-and-boundaries/maritime-boundaries-of-the-caribbean-part-of-the-kingdom |publisher=Ministry of Defence |date=15 November 2017 |access-date=5 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical [[climate]] with warm weather all year round.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biasutti |first1=Michela |last2=Sobel |first2=Adam H. |last3=Camargo |first3=Suzana J. |last4=Creyts |first4=Timothy T. |date=1 June 2012 |title=Projected changes in the physical climate of the Gulf Coast and Caribbean |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0254-y |journal=Climatic Change |language=en |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=819–845 |doi=10.1007/s10584-011-0254-y |bibcode=2012ClCh..112..819B |s2cid=8304158 |issn=1573-1480}}</ref>

[[File:Kleine Bonaire-Underwater life(js).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Underwater life of [[Klein Bonaire]]]]
Within this island group:
* [[Bonaire]] is part of the [[ABC islands (Leeward Antilles)|ABC islands]] within the [[Leeward Antilles]] island chain off the [[Venezuela]]n coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.
* [[Saba (island)|Saba]] and [[Sint Eustatius]] are part of the [[SSS islands]] within the [[Leeward Islands]]. They are located east of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Virgin Islands]]. The locals (French, Spanish, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and the locally spoken English) consider them part of the Windward Islands, although in the international English language, the [[Windward Islands]] refer to other islands further south. These two islands are of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for [[agriculture]]. The highest point is [[Mount Scenery]], {{convert|887|m|ft|abbr=on}}, on [[Saba (island)|Saba]]. This is the highest point in the country and in the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands.