Editing Meat (section)

== Production ==

{{further|Meat industry|Meat-packing industry}}

<gallery class=center mode=packed heights=300>
File:World production of meat, main items.svg|World production of meat, main items<ref name="FAOSTAT 2021">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4477en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021 |publisher=FAO |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-5-134332-6 |location=Rome |doi=10.4060/cb4477en |s2cid=240163091}}</ref>
File:World production of main meat items, main producers (2019).svg|World production of main meat items, main producers (2019)<ref name="FAOSTAT 2021"/>
</gallery>

{{Bar chart|title=Land Animals Killed for Meat, 2013<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL |title=FAOSTAT |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=October 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL |archive-date=May 11, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>|float=right
|label_type=Animals|data_type=Number Killed|bar_width=10<!--horizontal bar chart-->|width_units=em|data_max=61171973510
|label1=Chickens|data1=61171973510
|label2=Ducks|data2=2887594480
|label3=Pigs|data3=1451856889
|label4=Rabbits|data4=1171578000
|label5=Geese|data5=687147000
|label6=Turkeys|data6=618086890
|label7=Sheep|data7=536742256
|label8=Goats|data8=438320370
|label9=Cattle|data9=298799160
|label10=Rodents|data10=70371000
|label11=Other birds|data11=59656000
|label12=Buffalo|data12=25798819
|label13=Horses|data13=4863367
|label14=Donkeys, mules|data14=3478300
|label15=Camelids|data15=3298266}}

{{Pie chart
 |caption='''[[Biomass (ecology)|Biomass]] of [[mammal]]s on Earth'''<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 21, 2018|title=Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study|access-date=December 30, 2022|website=The Guardian}}</ref>
 |label1 =Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs
 |value1 =60 |color1=blue
 |label2 =Humans
 |value2 =36 |color2=red
 |label3 =[[Wildlife|Wild mammals]]
 |value3 =4  |color3=green
 }}

=== Transport ===

Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported ''en masse'' to the slaughterhouse.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=129–130}} Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die ''en route''.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=129–130}} Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=129–130}} In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and [[glycogen]], and their [[pH]] fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=129–130}}

=== Slaughter ===

{{see also|Animal slaughter|Meat industry}}

Animals are usually slaughtered by being first [[stunned]] and then [[exsanguination|exsanguinated]] (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=134–138}} Stunning can be effected through [[asphyxia]]ting the animals with [[carbon dioxide]], shooting them with a gun or a [[captive bolt pistol]], or shocking them with electric current.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=134–138}} The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the [[carotid artery]] and the [[jugular vein]] in cattle and sheep, and the [[anterior vena cava]] in pigs.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=134–138}} Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=134–138}}

=== Dressing and cutting ===

After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, [[viscera]] and [[offal]] are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=134–138}} Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=134–138}}

=== Conditioning ===

Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5&nbsp;°C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=141–146}} During the first day after death, [[glycolysis]] continues until the accumulation of [[lactic acid]] causes the [[pH]] to reach about 5.5. The remaining [[glycogen]], about 18&nbsp;g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|p=87}}

''[[Rigor mortis]]'' sets in a few hours after death as [[adenosine triphosphate]] is used up. This causes the muscle proteins [[actin]] and [[myosin]] to combine into rigid [[actomyosin]]. This in turn lowers the meat's water-holding capacity,{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|p=90}} so the meat loses water or "weeps".{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=141–146}} In muscles that enter ''rigor'' in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=141–146}} Over time, muscle proteins [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denature]] in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and [[elastin]] of [[connective tissue]],{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=141–146}} and ''rigor mortis'' resolves. These changes mean that meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of ''rigor'', but tough when cooked during ''rigor.''{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=141–146}}

As the muscle pigment [[myoglobin]] denatures, its iron [[oxidation|oxidizes]], which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|pp=141–146}} Ongoing [[proteolysis]] contributes to conditioning: [[hypoxanthine]], a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.{{sfn|Lawrie|Ledward|2006|p=155}}

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=220 heights=220>
File:Atria slaughterhouse in Nurmo Seinajoki.JPG|A [[slaughterhouse]], Finland
File:MIN Rungis viandes de boucherie veau.jpg|[[Marché d'Intérêt National de Rungis|Rungis International Market]], France
File:Sucuk-1.jpg|The word "[[sausage]]" is derived from [[Old French]] {{Lang|fro|saussiche}}, from [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|salsus}}, "salted".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sausage&searchmode=none |title=Sausage |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |date=October 16, 1920 |access-date=January 31, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021020552/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sausage&searchmode=none |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
</gallery>

=== Additives ===

{{further|Meat spoilage|Meat preservation}}

When meat is industrially processed, [[Food additive|additives]] are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its [[Meat preservation|preservation]].<ref name="Mills, Additives">{{cite book |last=Mills |first=E. |title=Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences |chapter=Additives |year=2004 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-12-464970-5 |pages=1–6 |edition=1st}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Additives used in industrial meat processing<ref name="Mills, Additives"/>
|-
! Additive !! Examples !! Function !! Notes
|-
|[[Salt]] ||n/a ||Imparts flavor, inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps [[emulsifier|emulsifying]] finely processed products, such as sausages. ||The most common additive. Ready-to-eat meat products often contain 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt.
|-
|[[Nitrite]] ||n/a ||[[Curing meat]], to stabilize color and flavor, and inhibit growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]''. ||The use of nitrite's precursor [[nitrate]] is now limited to a few products such as dry sausage, [[prosciutto]] or [[parma ham]].
|-
|Alkaline [[polyphosphate]]s ||[[Sodium tripolyphosphate]] ||Increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth. ||
|-
|[[Ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) ||n/a ||Stabilize the color of cured meat. ||
|-
|[[Sweeteners]] ||Sugar, [[corn syrup]] ||Impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the [[Maillard reaction]]. ||
|-
|[[Seasoning]]s ||Spices, herbs, essential oils ||Impart or modify flavor. ||
|-
|[[Flavoring]]s ||[[Monosodium glutamate]] ||Strengthen existing flavors. ||
|-
|[[Tenderizing|Tenderizers]] ||[[Proteolytic enzyme]]s, acids ||Break down [[collagen]] to make the meat more palatable for consumption. ||
|-
|[[Antimicrobial]]s ||[[lactic acid|lactic]], [[citric acid|citric]] and [[acetic acid]], [[calcium sulfate]], [[cetylpyridinium chloride]], [[lactoferrin]], [[bacteriocin]]s such as [[nisin]]. ||Limit growth of [[meat spoilage]] bacteria ||
|-
|[[Antioxidant]]s ||  ||Limit [[lipid oxidation]], which would create an undesirable "off flavor". ||Used in precooked meat products.
|-
|[[Acidifier]]s ||Lactic acid, citric acid ||Impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] and moisture release in dried meat. ||They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard [[salami]] or [[prosciutto]].
|}