Editing Mahatma Gandhi (section)

=== Khilafat movement ===
{{main|Khilafat Movement}}
[[File:Gandhi and Tagore 1920.jpg|thumb|Gandhi (wearing a [[Gandhi cap]]) with [[Rabindranath Tagore]] and [[Sharda Mehta]], 1920]]
In 1919, following World War I, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the [[Ottoman Empire]] that had been defeated in the World War. Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18. Gandhi had already vocally supported the British crown in the first world war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nojeim |first=M. |title=Gandhi and King: The Power of Nonviolent Resistance |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-275-96574-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9a5AAAAIAAJ |page=75 |access-date=3 February 2024 |archive-date=3 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203075416/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9a5AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> This decision of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with ''swaraj'' (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.<ref name="robbins133">{{cite book |last=Keith Robbins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnTq4w-Ny3oC |title=The First World War |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-280318-4 |pages=133–137}}</ref> The British government had offered, instead of self-government, minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi.<ref name="green89">{{cite book |last1=Green |first1=Michael J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xHnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=A Global History of the Twentieth Century: Legacies and Lessons from Six National Perspectives |last2=Nicholas Szechenyi |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4422-7972-8 |pages=89–90}}</ref> He announced his ''satyagraha'' (civil disobedience) intentions. The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the [[Rowlatt Act]], to block Gandhi's movement. The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for "preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial."{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=68–72, 78–82, 96–102, 108–109}}

Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British. He leveraged the [[Khilafat movement]], wherein [[Sunni]] Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish [[Caliph]] as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community (''[[ummah]]''). They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of [[Ottoman Empire]] in World War I.{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=4–8}}<ref name="paine20">{{cite book |last=Sarah C.M. Paine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJ9sBgAAQBAJ |title=Nation Building, State Building, and Economic Development: Case Studies and Comparisons |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-46409-9 |pages=20–21}}</ref>{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=161–164}} Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results. It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi. However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.{{efn|{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=68–72, 78–82, 96–102, 108–109}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Roderick Matthews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r9A4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 |title=Jinnah vs. Gandhi |publisher=Hachette |year=2012 |isbn=978-93-5009-078-7 |page=31 |quote=Rabindranath Tagore heavily criticized Gandhi at the time in private letters (...). They reveal Tagore's belief that Gandhi had committed the Indian political nation to a cause that was mistakenly anti-Western and fundamentally negative.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kham |first=Aqeeluzzafar |year=1990 |title=The All-India Muslim Conference and the Origin of the Khilafat Movement in India |journal=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=155–162}}</ref><ref name="Roberts1923">{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=W.H. |year=1923 |title=A Review of the Gandhi Movement in India |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=227–48 |doi=10.2307/2142634 |jstor=2142634}}</ref>}}

The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence. It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt ''satyagraha'' demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bose, Sugata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMJIuHL9ksAC&pg=PA112 |title=Modern South History, Culture, Political Economy |last2=Jalal, Ayesha |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-203-71253-5 |pages=112–14 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{sfnp|Brown|1991|pp=140–147}} His support for the Khilafat movement also helped Gandhi sideline [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], who had announced his opposition to the ''satyagraha'' non-co-operation movement approach of Gandhi. Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan. Though they agreed in general terms on Indian independence, they disagreed on the means of achieving this. Jinnah was mainly interested in dealing with the British via constitutional negotiation, rather than attempting to agitate the masses.{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=113–116}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Akbar S. Ahmed |url=https://archive.org/details/jinnahpakistanis00ahme/page/57 |title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-14966-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jinnahpakistanis00ahme/page/57 57–71]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gandhi and Islam |url=https://www.islamicity.org/3910/gandhi-and-islam/ |access-date=18 April 2020 |website=www.islamicity.org |date=17 August 2010 |archive-date=7 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907012817/https://www.islamicity.org/3910/gandhi-and-islam/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1922, the Khilafat movement gradually collapsed following the end of the [[Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)|non-cooperation movement]] with the arrest of Gandhi.<ref name="Bandyopādhyāẏa">{{cite book |last=Bandyopādhyāẏa |first=Ś. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oVra0ulQ3QC&pg=PA304 |title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-250-2596-2 |page=304 |quote=He was arrested on 10 March 1922 and was sentenced to prison for six years. [...] Gradually the Khilafat movement too died. |access-date=25 August 2023 |archive-date=10 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710131254/https://books.google.com/books?id=0oVra0ulQ3QC&pg=PA304 |url-status=live }}</ref> A number of Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and Congress.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown, Judith Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ |title=Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-873112-2 |page=228 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702121919/https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited, and deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]] alone.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sarkar, Sumit |url=https://archive.org/details/modernindia1885100sark |title=Modern India: 1885–1947 |publisher=Macmillan |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-333-90425-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/modernindia1885100sark/page/n252 233] |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{sfnp|Markovits|2002|p=372}}