Editing Lead (section)

== History ==
=== Prehistory and early history ===
[[File:Lead production graph.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|World lead production peaking in the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period and the [[Industrial Revolution]]{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}|alt=A line chart generally growing to its right]]Metallic lead beads [[metals of antiquity|dating back to 7000–6500 BC]] have been found in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and may represent the first example of metal [[smelting]].{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=4}} At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=4}} The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral).{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to [[Ancient Greece]] and beyond;{{sfn|History of Cosmetics}} the Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in [[Fishing net|fishing nets]], [[Compacted oxide layer glaze|glazes]], [[Glass|glasses]], [[Vitreous enamel|enamels]], [[Ornament (art)|ornaments]].{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} Various civilizations of the [[Fertile Crescent]] used lead as a [[writing material]], as [[coin]]s,{{sfn|Chapurukha Kusimba|2017}} and as a [[List of building materials|construction material]].{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a [[stimulant]],{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} as [[currency]],{{sfn|Yu|Yu|2004|p=26}} as [[Birth control|contraceptive]],{{sfn|Toronto museum explores|2003}} and in [[chopsticks]].{{sfn|Neiburger|2018}} The [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]] and the [[Mesoamerica]]ns used it for making [[Amulet|amulets]];{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} and the eastern and southern Africans used lead in [[wire drawing]].{{sfn|Bisson|Vogel|2000|p=105}}

=== Classical era ===
Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000&nbsp;BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]] and [[Lavrio|Laurion]].{{sfn|Wood|Hsu|Bell|2021}} These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until {{Circa|1200&nbsp;BC}}.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=5}} Beginning c. 2000&nbsp;BC, the [[Phoenicia]]ns worked deposits in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]]; by 1600&nbsp;BC, lead mining existed in [[Cyprus]], [[Greece]], and [[Sardinia]].{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|1973}}

[[File:Sling bullets BM GR1842.7-28.550 GR1851.5-7.11.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient Greek lead sling bullets with a winged thunderbolt molded on one side and the inscription {{lang|grc|ΔΕΞΑΙ}} ("take that") on the other side{{sfn|Lead sling bullet}}]]

[[Roman Republic|Rome's]] territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors, the Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}{{sfn|de Callataÿ|2005|pp=361–372}} Lead mining occurred in [[central Europe]], [[Roman Britain|Britain]], [[Balkans]], [[Greece]], [[Anatolia]], [[Hispania]], the latter accounting for 40% of world production.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}
[[File:Bleiplatte von Magliano B.jpg|thumb|The [[Lead Plaque of Magliano]], Italy, bears an Etruscan inscription from mid-5th century BC.|alt=A vaguely round plate illuminated from a side to increase the contrast. The characters curl around the contour.]]
Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters.{{sfn|Ceccarelli|2013|p=35}} Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Ossuaries and Sarcophagi}} Lead was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The [[Balearic slinger|Balearic slingers]], used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy.{{sfn|Calvo Rebollar|2019|p=45}}

[[File:Grosvenor Museums - Wasserröhren.jpg|thumb|left|Roman lead pipes{{efn|The [[Roman lead pipe inscription|inscription]] reads: "Made when the Emperor [[Vespasian]] was consul for the ninth term and the Emperor Titus was consul for the seventh term, when [[Gnaeus Iulius Agricola]] was imperial governor (of Britain)."}}|alt=Ancient pipes in a museum case]]

Lead was used for making water pipes in the [[Roman Empire]]; the [[Latin]] word for the metal, {{lang|la|plumbum}}, is the origin of the English word "[[plumbing]]". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=6}} ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=179–184}}{{sfn|Bisel|Bisel|2002|pp=459–460}}{{sfn|Retief|Cilliers|2006|pp=149–151}} Writers of the time, such as [[Cato the Elder]], [[Columella]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for the preparation of [[Grape syrup|sweeteners and preservatives]] added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ([[lead(II) acetate]]), whereas [[copper]] vessels imparted a bitter flavor through [[verdigris]] formation.{{sfn|Grout|2017}}<!--Grout's work, the Encyclopaedia Romana, is cited by other reliable sources e.g. Davies ME & Swain H 2010, Aspects of Roman history 82 BC--AD 14: A source-based approach, Routledge, p. 388; Bakken C 2013, Honey, olives, octopus: Adventures at the Greek table, University of California, p. 61; Tschen-Emmons JB 2015, Artefacts from ancient Rome, Greenwood, p. 302-->

{{Quote box
|quote = This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic is to us.
|salign=right| source = Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler<br />"Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992{{sfn|Eschnauer|Stoeppler|1992|p=58}}
|bgcolor = Cornsilk
|quoted = 1
|width = 25em
|align = right
}}

The Roman author [[Vitruvius]] reported the [[Roman lead poisoning theory|health dangers of lead]]{{sfn|Hodge|1981|pp=486–491}}<ref>{{cite book |last1= Marcus Vitruvius Pollio |title={{transliteration|la|[[De architectura]]}}|date=1914 |orig-date=c. 15 BC| series=Book 8, 10–11 [[:Wikisource:Ten Books on Architecture/Book VIII|fulltext]]|author1-link=Marcus Vitruvius Pollio }}</ref> and modern writers have suggested that lead poisoning played a major role in the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|decline of the Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Gilfillan|1965|pp=53–60}}{{sfn|Nriagu|1983|pp=660–663}}{{efn|The fact that [[Julius Caesar]] fathered only one child, as well as the alleged sterility of his successor, [[Caesar Augustus]], have been attributed to lead poisoning.{{sfn|Frankenburg|2014|p=16}}}} Other researchers have criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance, that not all [[abdominal pain]] is caused by lead poisoning.{{sfn|Scarborough|1984}}{{sfn|Waldron|1985|pp=107–108}} According to archaeological research, Roman [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|lead pipes]] increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect was "unlikely to have been truly harmful".{{sfn|Reddy|Braun|2010|p=1052}}{{sfn|Delile|Blichert-Toft|Goiran|Keay|2014|pp=6594–6599}} When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called "saturnine", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father of the gods, [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]. By association, lead was considered the father of all metals.{{sfn|Finger|2006|p=184}} Its status in Roman society was low as it was readily available{{sfn|Lewis|1985|p=15}} and cheap.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=183}}

==== Confusion with tin and antimony ====
Since the [[Bronze Age]], metallurgists and engineers have understood the difference between rare and valuable [[tin]], essential for alloying with copper to produce tough and corrosion resistant [[bronze]], and 'cheap and cheerful' lead. However, the nomenclature in some languages is similar.  Romans called lead {{lang|la|plumbum nigrum}} ("black lead"), and tin {{lang|la|plumbum candidum}} ("bright lead"). The association of lead and tin can be seen in other languages: the word {{lang|cs|olovo}} in [[Czech language|Czech]] translates to "lead", but in Russian, its [[cognate]] {{lang|ru|олово}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|olovo}}) means "tin".{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=8}} To add to the confusion, lead bore a close relation to antimony: both elements commonly occur as sulfides (galena and [[stibnite]]), often together. Pliny incorrectly wrote that stibnite would give lead on heating, instead of antimony.{{sfn|Thomson|1830|p=74}} In countries such as Turkey and India, the originally Persian name {{lang|fa-Latn|surma}} came to refer to either antimony sulfide or lead sulfide,{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|loc=surma}} and in some languages, such as Russian, gave its name to antimony ({{lang|ru|сурьма}}).{{sfn|Vasmer|1986–1987|loc=сурьма}}

=== Middle Ages and the Renaissance ===
[[File:Nicholas Hilliard (called) - Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I of England]] was commonly depicted with a whitened face. Lead in face whiteners is thought to have contributed to her death.{{sfn|Kellett|2012|pp=106–107}}|alt=A white-faced woman in red clothes]]

Lead mining in Western Europe declined after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], with [[Al-Andalus|Arabian Iberia]] being the only region having a significant output.{{sfn|Winder|1993a}}{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=7}} The largest production of lead occurred in South Asia and East Asia, especially China and India, where lead mining grew rapidly.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=7}}

In Europe, lead production began to increase in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was again used for roofing and piping. Starting in the 13th century, lead was used to create [[medieval stained glass|stained glass]].{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=8}} In the [[Alchemy#Medieval Europe|European]] and [[Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world|Arabian]] traditions of [[alchemy]], lead (symbol ♄ in the European tradition){{sfn|Ede|Cormack|2016|p=54}} was considered an impure [[base metal]] which, by the separation, purification and balancing of its constituent essences, could be transformed to pure and incorruptible gold.{{sfn|Cotnoir|2006|p=35}} During the period, lead was used increasingly for [[Adulterant|adulterating]] wine. The use of such wine was forbidden for use in Christian rites by a [[papal bull]] in 1498, but it continued to be imbibed and resulted in mass poisonings up to the late 18th century.{{sfn|Winder|1993a}}{{sfn|Samson|1885|p=388}} Lead was a key material in parts of the [[printing press]], and lead dust was commonly inhaled by print workers, causing lead poisoning.{{sfn|Sinha|Shelly|Sharma|Meenakshi|1993}} Lead also became the chief material for making bullets for firearms: it was cheap, less damaging to iron gun barrels, had a higher density (which allowed for better retention of velocity), and its lower melting point made the production of bullets easier as they could be made using a wood fire.{{sfn|Ramage|1980|p=8}} Lead, in the form of [[Venetian ceruse]], was extensively used in cosmetics by Western European aristocracy as whitened faces were regarded as a sign of modesty.{{sfn|Tungate|2011|p=14}}{{sfn|Donnelly|2014|pp=171–172}} This practice later expanded to white wigs and eyeliners, and only faded out with the [[French Revolution]] in the late 18th century. A similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of the [[geisha]]s, a practice that continued long into the 20th century. The white faces of women "came to represent their feminine virtue as Japanese women",{{sfn|Ashikari|2003|p=65}} with lead commonly used in the whitener.{{sfn|Nakashima|Hayashi|Tashiro|Matsushita|1998|p=59}}

=== Outside Europe and Asia ===
In the [[New World]], lead production was recorded soon after the arrival of European settlers. The earliest record dates to 1621 in the English [[Colony of Virginia]], fourteen years after its foundation.{{sfn|Rabinowitz|1995|p=66}} In Australia, the first mine opened by colonists on the continent was a lead mine, in 1841.{{sfn|Gill|Libraries Board of South Australia|1974|p=69}} In Africa, lead mining and smelting were known in the [[Benue Trough]]{{sfn|Bisson|Vogel|2000|p=85}} and the lower [[Congo Basin]], where lead was used for trade with Europeans, and as a currency by the 17th century,{{sfn|Bisson|Vogel|2000|pp=131–132}} well before the [[scramble for Africa]].

=== Industrial Revolution ===

[[File:Lead mining Barber 1865p321cropped.jpg|thumb|left|Lead mining in the upper [[Mississippi River]] region in the United States in 1865|alt=A black-and-white drawing of men working in a mine]]

In the second half of the 18th century, Britain, and later continental Europe and the United States, experienced the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This was the first time during which lead production rates exceeded those of Rome.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–43}} Britain was the leading producer, losing this status by the mid-19th century with the depletion of its mines and the development of lead mining in Germany, Spain, and the United States.{{sfn|Lead mining}} By 1900, the United States was the leader in global lead production, and other non-European nations—Canada, Mexico, and Australia—had begun significant production; production outside Europe exceeded that within.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=11}} A great share of the demand for lead came from plumbing and painting—[[lead paint]]s were in regular use.{{sfn|Riva|Lafranconi|d'Orso|Cesana|2012|pp=11–16}} At this time, more (working class) people were exposed to the metal and lead poisoning cases escalated. This led to research into the effects of lead intake. Lead was proven to be more dangerous in its fume form than as a solid metal. Lead poisoning and [[gout]] were linked; British physician [[Alfred Baring Garrod]] noted a third of his gout patients were plumbers and painters. The effects of chronic ingestion of lead, including mental disorders, were also studied in the 19th century. The first laws aimed at decreasing lead poisoning in factories were enacted during the 1870s and 1880s in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Riva|Lafranconi|d'Orso|Cesana|2012|pp=11–16}}

=== Modern era ===
[[File:Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png|thumb|right|upright|Promotional poster for [[Dutch Boy Paint|Dutch Boy]] lead paint, United States, 1912|alt=A promotional poster for "COLLIER White Lead" (these words are highlighted) featuring a large image of a boy]]Further evidence of the threat that lead posed to humans was discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mechanisms of harm were better understood, lead blindness was documented, and the element was phased out of public use in the United States and Europe. The United Kingdom introduced mandatory factory inspections in 1878 and appointed the first Medical Inspector of Factories in 1898; as a result, a 25-fold decrease in lead poisoning incidents from 1900 to 1944 was reported.{{sfn|Hernberg|2000|p=246}} Most European countries banned lead paint—commonly used because of its opacity and water resistance{{sfn|Crow|2007}}—for interiors by 1930.{{sfn|Markowitz|Rosner|2000|p=37}}

The last major human exposure to lead was the addition of [[tetraethyllead]] to gasoline as an [[antiknock agent]], a practice that originated in the United States in 1921. <!--The sale of leaded gasoline was temporarily phased out in some American cites from 1924, due to adverse press coverage, but reintroduced by no later than 1927 after scientific studies of the time found no good reasons for continuing the ban.{{sfn|Uekoetter|2004|p=132}}--> It was phased out in the United States and the [[European Union]] by 2000.{{sfn|Riva|Lafranconi|d'Orso|Cesana|2012|pp=11–16}}

In the 1970s, the United States and Western European countries introduced legislation to reduce lead air pollution.{{sfn|More|Spaulding|Bohleber|Handley|2017}}{{sfn|American Geophysical Union|2017}} The impact was significant: while a study conducted by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] in the United States in 1976–1980 showed that 77.8% of the population had elevated [[blood lead level]]s, in 1991–1994, a study by the same institute showed the share of people with such high levels dropped to 2.2%.{{sfn|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|1997}} The main product made of lead by the end of the 20th century was the [[Lead-acid battery|lead–acid battery]].{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=117}}

From 1960 to 1990, lead output in the [[Western Bloc]] grew by about 31%.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=17}} The share of the world's lead production by the [[Eastern Bloc]] increased from 10% to 30%, from 1950 to 1990, with the [[Soviet Union]] being the world's largest producer during the mid-1970s and the 1980s, and China starting major lead production in the late 20th century.{{sfn|Rich|1994|pp=91–92}} Unlike the European communist countries, China was largely unindustrialized by the mid-20th century; in 2004, China surpassed Australia as the largest producer of lead.{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|2005}} As was the case during European industrialization, lead has had a negative effect on health in China.{{sfn|Zhang|Yang|Li|Li|2012|pp=2261–2273}}