Editing Jaguar (section)

==Threats==
[[File:Colonel Roosevelt's first South American jaguar.jpg|thumb|A South American jaguar killed by [[Theodore Roosevelt]]]]
The jaguar is threatened by [[habitat loss|loss]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] of habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed as [[Near Threatened]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 2002, as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20–25% since the mid-1990s. [[Deforestation]] is a major threat to the jaguar across its range. Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentine [[pampas]], the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States.<ref name=iucn/>

In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century.<ref name=Sanderson2002/> In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century. The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=De La Torre, J.A. |author2=González-Maya, J.F. |author3=Zarza, H. |author4=Ceballos, G. |author5=Medellín, R.A. |year=2018 |name-list-style=amp |title=The jaguar's spots are darker than they appear: assessing the global conservation status of the jaguar ''Panthera onca'' |journal=Oryx |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=300–315 |doi=10.1017/S0030605316001046 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018Oryx...52..300D }}</ref>
Between 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to {{convert|83.759|km2|abbr=on}}, with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Olsoy, P.J. |author2=Zeller, K.A. |author3=Hicke, J.A. |author4=Quigley, H.B. |author5=Rabinowitz, A.R. |author6=Thornton, D.H. |year=2016 |name-list-style=amp |title=Quantifying the effects of deforestation and fragmentation on a range-wide conservation plan for jaguars |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=203 |pages=8–16 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307954092 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2016.08.037 |bibcode=2016BCons.203....8O |access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021307/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307954092_Quantifying_the_effects_of_deforestation_and_fragmentation_on_a_range-wide_conservation_plan_for_jaguars |url-status=live}}</ref>
By 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Thompson, J.J. |author2=Velilla, M. |year=2017 |name-list-style=amp |title=Modeling the effects of deforestation on the connectivity of jaguar ''Panthera onca'' populations at the southern extent of the species' range |journal=Endangered Species Research |volume=34 |pages=109–121 |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2017/34/n034p109.pdf |doi=10.3354/esr00840 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017ESRes..34..109T |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308132647/https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2017/34/n034p109.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened by [[poaching]]. Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico, in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], caused by changes in land use, construction of roads and tourism infrastructure.<ref name=Ceballos2016>{{cite book |author1=Ceballos, G. |author2=Zarza, H. |author3=Chávez, C. |author4=González-Maya, J.F. |year=2016 |name-list-style=amp |chapter=Ecology and Conservation of Jaguars in Mexico |title=Tropical conservation: Perspectives on local and global priorities |editor1=Aguirre, A. |editor2=Sukumar, R. |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307985045 |pages=273–289 |isbn=978-019976698-7 |access-date=28 February 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021317/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307985045_Ecology_and_conservation_of_jaguars_in_Mexico_state_of_knowledge_and_future_challenges |url-status=live}}</ref>
In Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Moreno, R. |author2=Meyer, N. |author3=Olmos, M. |author4=Hoogesteijn, R. |author5=Hoogesteijn, A.L. |year=2015 |name-list-style=amp |title=Causes of jaguar killing in Panama – a long term survey using interviews |journal=Cat News |issue=62 |pages=40–42 |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/29640/CN62_Moreno_et_al_2015.pdf |access-date=18 November 2021 |archive-date=18 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118072049/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/29640/CN62_Moreno_et_al_2015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
In Venezuela, the jaguar was extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in dry [[savanna]]s and unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of [[Anzoátegui]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jędrzejewski |first1=W. |last2=Boede |first2=E.O. |last3=Abarca |first3=M. |last4=Sánchez-Mercado |first4=A. |last5=Ferrer-Paris |first5=J.R. |last6=Lampo |first6=M. |last7=Velásquez |first7=G. |last8=Carreño |first8=R. |last9=Viloria |first9=Á.L. |last10=Hoogesteijn |first10=R. |last11=Robinson |first11=H.S. |last12=Stachowicz |first12=I. |last13=Cerda |first13=H. |last14=Weisz |first14=M. del Mar |last15=Barros |first15=T.R. |last16=Rivas |first16=Gilson A. |last17=Borges |first17=G. |last18=Molinari |first18=J. |last19=Lew |first19=D. |last20=Takiff |first20=H. |last21=Schmidt |first21=K. |year=2017 |name-list-style=amp |title=Predicting carnivore distribution and extirpation rate based on human impacts and productivity factors; assessment of the state of jaguar (''Panthera onca'') in Venezuela |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=206 |pages=132–142 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312059394 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.027 |bibcode=2017BCons.206..132J |access-date=28 February 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021303/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312059394_Predicting_carnivore_distribution_and_extirpation_rate_based_on_human_impacts_and_productivity_factors_assessment_of_the_state_of_jaguar_Panthera_onca_in_Venezuela |url-status=live}}</ref>
In Ecuador, the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Espinosa, S. |author2=Celis, G. |author3=Branch, L.C. |year=2018 |name-list-style=amp |title=When roads appear jaguars decline: Increased access to an Amazonian wilderness area reduces potential for jaguar conservation |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=e0189740 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0189740 |doi-access=free |pmc=5751993 |pmid=29298311 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1389740E}}</ref>
In the [[Alto Paraná Atlantic forests]], at least 117 jaguars were killed in [[Iguaçu National Park]] and the adjacent [[Misiones Province]] between 1995 and 2008.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Paviolo, A. |author2=De Angelo, C.D. |author3=Di Blanco, Y.E. |author4=Di Bitetti, M.S. |year=2008 |name-list-style=amp |title=Jaguar ''Panthera onca'' population decline in the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest of Argentina and Brazil |journal=Oryx |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=554–561 |doi=10.1017/S0030605308000641 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |doi-access=free|hdl=11336/61266 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
Some [[Afro-Colombians]] in the Colombian [[Chocó Department]] hunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Balaguera-Reina, S. |author2=Gonzalez-Maya, J.F. |year=2008 |name-list-style=amp |title=Occasional jaguar hunting for subsistence in Colombian Chocó |journal=Cat News |issue=48 |page=5 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233399315 |access-date=28 February 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021347/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233399315_Occasional_Jaguar_Hunting_for_Subsistence_in_Colombian_Choco |url-status=live}}</ref>
Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Foster, R.J. |author2=Harmsen, B.J. |author3=Urbina, Y. L. |author4=Wooldridge, R.L. |author5=Doncaster, C.P. |author6=Quigley, H. |author7=Figueroa, O.A. |year=2020 |name-list-style=amp |title=Jaguar (''Panthera onca'') density and tenure in a critical biological corridor |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=1622–1637 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyaa134 |pmid=33505226 |pmc=7816682 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the [[Second World War]] and the early 1970s.<ref name="SkinTrade">{{cite book |last=Broad |first=S. |date=1987 |title=The harvest of and trade in Latin American spotted cats (Felidae) and otters (Lutrinae) |publisher=IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre |location=Cambridge |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/119261 |access-date=21 February 2018 |archive-date=13 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113095346/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/119261 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the [[Brazilian Amazon]] alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] was enacted.<ref name="r32">{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=W. |author2=Rabinowitz, A. |year=1996 |name-list-style=amp |title=A global perspective on large carnivore conservation |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1046–1054 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041046.x |bibcode=1996ConBi..10.1046W |url=http://www.jaguarnetwork.org/pdf/71.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426042409/http://www.jaguarnetwork.org/pdf/71.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref>
Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Knox, J. |author2=Negrões, N. |author3=Marchini, S. |author4=Barboza, K. |author5=Guanacoma, G. |author6=Balhau, P. |author7=Tobler, M.W. |author8=Glikman, J.A. |year=2019 |name-list-style=amp |title=Jaguar persecution without "cowflict": insights from protected territories in the Bolivian Amazon |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=7 |page=494 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2019.00494 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Between August 2016 and August 2019, jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of [[Lima]], [[Iquitos]] and [[Pucallpa]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Braczkowski, A. |author2=Ruzo, A. |author3=Sanchez, F. |author4=Castagnino, R. |author5=Brown, C. |author6=Guynup, S. |author7=Winter, S. |author8=Gandy, D. |author9=O'Bryan, C. |year=2019 |name-list-style=amp |title=The ayahuasca tourism boom: An undervalued demand driver for jaguar body parts? |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |volume=1 |issue=12 |page=e126 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336450042 |doi=10.1111/csp2.126 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019ConSP...1E.126B |access-date=28 February 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021318/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336450042_The_ayahuasca_tourism_boom_An_undervalued_demand_driver_for_jaguar_body_parts |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Human-wildlife conflict]], opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Arias, M. |author2=Hinsley, A. |author3=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |year=2020 |name-list-style=amp |title=Characteristics of, and uncertainties about, illegal jaguar trade in Belize and Guatemala |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=250 |page=108765 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108765 |bibcode=2020BCons.25008765A |s2cid=224967913 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344172628 |access-date=18 November 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021310/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344172628_Characteristics_of_and_uncertainties_about_illegal_jaguar_trade_in_Belize_and_Guatemala |url-status=live}}</ref>
Seizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized in [[China]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Morcatty, T.Q. |author2=Bausch Macedo, J.C. |author3=Nekaris, K.A.I. |author4=Ni, Q. |author5=Durigan, C.C. |author6=Svensson, M.S. |author7=Nijman, V. |year=2020 |name-list-style=amp |title=Illegal trade in wild cats and its link to Chinese-led development in Central and South America |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1525–1535 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13498 |pmid=32484587 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020ConBi..34.1525M}}</ref>
Between 2014 and early 2019, 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China. Undercover investigations revealed that the [[smuggling]] of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia.<ref>{{cite report |author=Earth League International |year=2020 |title=Unveiling the criminal networks behind jaguar trafficking in Bolivia |publisher=IUCN National Committee of the Netherlands |location=Amsterdam |url=https://www.iucn.nl/app/uploads/2021/03/iucn_nl_report_jaguar_trafficking_bolivia_media-1.pdf |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726070809/https://www.iucn.nl/app/uploads/2021/03/iucn_nl_report_jaguar_trafficking_bolivia_media-1.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>