Editing Infant baptism (section)

== Denominations teachings & practices ==

=== Roman Catholic ===
{{further|Baptism#Catholicism}}
The [[Catholic Church]] requires a "founded hope" the child will be raised Catholic for licit baptism ([[1983 Code of Canon Law|Code of Canon Law]] 868 §1, 2° CIC). If absent, baptism is postponed (not denied) with explanation. The [[sacrament]] grants [[Regeneration (theology)|regeneration]], removes original sin, and unites the child with Christ.<ref name=":25">Jakubiak, T. (2018). The Founded Hope that an Infant will be Brought up in the Catholic Religion as a Condition for Baptism. ''Studia canonica'', ''52''(2), 491-508.</ref> Therefore, baptism is a fundamental sacrament in the Church, marking the initiation of an individual into Christian life and the Church community. It is essential for salvation, providing spiritual rebirth and access to other sacraments.<ref name=":25" />

The Church requires assurance that baptized infants will be raised Catholic (Canon 868 §1, 2° CIC). Parental consent is mandatory - at least one parent/guardian must approve. Baptism cannot be administered against parental wishes except in danger of death, when it may proceed regardless of objections.<ref name=":25" /> Additionally, baptism is seen as a one-time sacrament that marks a person’s commitment to Christ and cannot be repeated. If there is serious doubt about whether someone was baptized before or if it was done correctly, the Catholic Church allows a conditional baptism to be performed. Moreover, the practice of baptizing miscarried or stillborn infants is no longer done.<ref name=":35">{{Cite web |date=2025-03-05 |title=Roman Catholicism - Baptism, Sacraments, Faith {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism/Baptism |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Church recognizes both pouring ([[affusion]]) and [[Immersion baptism|immersion]] as valid baptismal methods, stating that the symbolic cleansing is preserved through the ritual use of water, even when full immersion isn't practiced.<ref name=":35" />

The Church acknowledges the importance of a personal decision in baptism, which infants cannot make. To address this, godparents are appointed to stand in for the child, committing to their Christian upbringing on behalf of the parents. The role of parents and godparents is strongly emphasized in the Church’s rite of infant baptism, first introduced in 1969 and later revised. As they grow, baptized children are expected to embrace the faith chosen for them, confirming the decision made on their behalf.<ref name=":35" />

Historically, such practices were developed gradually, rooted in early Christian tradition, [[original sin]], and sacramental theology. While adult baptism was initially dominant, the practice of baptizing infants became common by the third century. [[Cyprian|Cyprian of Carthage]] (c. 250 AD) defended it, arguing that baptismal grace should not be denied to children.<ref name=":44">Johnson, M. E. (1999). Baptismal" Spirituality" in the Early Church and Its Implications for the Church Today. pp. 188-211.</ref> In the fourth century, [[Augustine of Hippo]] linked baptism to original sin, asserting that it was necessary for salvation. His arguments shaped medieval sacramental theology, which emphasized that baptism remained valid regardless of personal faith ([[ex opere operato]]).<ref name=":44" /> The concept of ''[[limbo]]'' (''limbus infantium''), a speculative idea that unbaptized infants neither enter heaven nor suffer in hell, was never official Church doctrine. Though widely held from the 12th century onward, belief in limbo had largely faded by the 20th century.<ref name=":35" />

In-response to Protestant critiques, the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563) firmly upheld infant baptism as obligatory, solidifying its standard practice with support from godparents and catechesis. Today, the Church teaches that unbaptized infants are entrusted to God’s mercy, while maintaining that baptism remains essential for initiation into the faith and liberation from original sin.<ref name=":44" />

=== Eastern Churches ===
[[File:Russian-baptism.JPG|thumb|Baptism by immersion in the Eastern Orthodox Church ([[Ascension Cathedral (Sophia, Pushkin)|Sophia Cathedral]], 2005)]]
The Eastern Orthodox Church practices infant baptism as a fundamental part of its [[Sacrament|sacramental theology]], viewing it as the child's initiation into the Church and participation in the life of Jesus.<ref name=":62">Heller, D. (2023). ''Baptism''. In B. N. Wolfe et al. (Eds.), ''St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology''. Retrieved March 5, 2025, from https://www.saet.ac.uk/Christianity/Baptism. pp.13-14.</ref> The baptism is performed through triple immersion in water, symbolizing the believer’s sharing in Christ’s death and resurrection.<ref name=":62" /> In [[Eastern Orthodox theology|Orthodox theology]], sacraments are considered effective by the very act of their completion ([[ex opere operato]]), meaning they impart divine grace regardless of the recipient’s personal understanding.<ref name=":7">House, H. W. (2000). ''Baptism for the forgiveness of sins: Sign, seal, or means of grace? (Part 1)''. Christian Research Journal, 22(2), 1–33.</ref>

The Orthodox Church, like the Roman Catholic Church, believes that baptism results in the forgiveness of sins, both original and [[Actual sin|actual]]. Through baptism, the newly baptized is "[[Galatians 3|clothed with Christ"]] and becomes a full member of the Church.<ref name=":7" /> The sacrament is viewed as a mystical communion with God, through which grace is given for salvation and spiritual transformation. This understanding reflects the Orthodox belief that sacraments are "[[Sacred mysteries#Eastern|Mysteries]]", divine means by which humanity experiences salvation and anticipates eternal life in [[Kingship and kingdom of God#Christianity|God’s kingdom]].<ref name=":7" />

Baptism in the Orthodox Church is immediately followed by [[Chrismation]] (Confirmation) and [[Eucharist|Holy Communion]], emphasizing the unity of these three sacraments.<ref name=":62" /> Chrismation, administered by the priest, involves anointing the baptized with [[Chrism|Holy Myron (Chrism]]), sealing them with the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The newly baptized, including infants, then receive the [[Eucharist]], partaking in consecrated wine and bread as their first communion.<ref name=":62" /> This integrated approach contrasts with many [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] traditions, where these sacraments are administered separately at different stages of life.

The baptism of infants is performed on the basis of the faith of the Church, rather than the personal profession of the child.<ref name=":62" /> The commitment of parents and godparents plays a crucial role, as they pledge to raise the child in the Orthodox faith. While infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, mirroring the [[Religion and circumcision#Judaism|Old Testament practice of circumcision]], this timing is not strictly required, and baptisms may occur at any time.<ref>{{cite web |author=John Henry Parker |display-authors=etal |date=1844 |title=The Epistles of S. Cyprian, with the Council of Carthage, on the Baptism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srdWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=12 December 2014 |publisher=Oxford, London}}</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox theology|Orthodox theology]] holds that baptism is essential for salvation and the remission of original sin, making it a vital sacrament in the life of every Orthodox Christian.<ref>Ware, K. (1993). The Orthodox Church: An introduction to Eastern Christianity (p. 284). Penguin UK.</ref>

=== Protestant ===

==== Lutheran Churches ====
[[File:Lutheran_baptism.jpg|left|thumb|Baptism of a child in Finland by a Lutheran pastor (2015)]]
[[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] uphold infant baptism by pointing to scriptural references where entire households were baptized (e.g., [[Acts 16]]:15). They argue that households in biblical times included children. According to [[Martin Luther]], baptism is not founded on personal faith, as one can never be certain of faith. Instead, it is based on God's word and commandment. The faith involved is that of those who bring the child to baptism (fides aliena), such as parents, godparents, and the church congregation.<ref name=":8">(Heller, 2023, pp. 10-15)</ref>

Lutherans believe that through baptism, the child receives infused faith, mediated by the prayers of the church, parents, and godparents. Baptism purifies and renews the child. Personal faith is not a prerequisite for baptism but is nourished by it, as the individual continually adheres to God's grace and renounces sin throughout life. [[Augsburg Confession|The Augsburg Confession (II)]] states that baptism is necessary for salvation. It is an assignment to Christ, a surrender into Jesus’ death and resurrection, and a gift of new life that calls the baptized to walk in faith.<ref name=":8" />

While baptism marks initiation into the church and incorporation into the people of God, it is viewed as the beginning of a lifelong journey. If not taken in faith, baptism remains incomplete. In the post-Reformation era, [[Lutheran orthodoxy]] reaffirmed the necessity of infant baptism. However, later movements such as [[Pietism]] and [[Rationalism]] emphasized inner experience over the sacrament, leading figures like [[John Wesley]] to argue that true rebirth occurs through personal transformation, not the outward ritual.<ref name=":8" />

==== Methodist ====
[[File:First_century_of_national_existence;_the_United_States_as_they_were_and_are.._(1873)_(14764282955).jpg|thumb|Presbyterian-Congregational Alliance (1770–1852)]]
According to Campbell (1999), [[Methodism|Methodist churches]] affirm infant baptism, rooted in the [[Twenty-five Articles|seventeenth Article of Religion]]’s instruction to retain “the baptism of young children” (p. 107). Methodists have historically defended this practice against critics of infant baptism, grounding it in New Testament accounts of household baptisms ([[Acts 16]]:15, 33), Jesus’ embrace of children (e.g., [[Matthew 19]]:13–15), and the belief that all, including infants, require inclusion in the church’s covenantal fellowship.<ref>Campbell, T. A. (1999). ''Methodist doctrine: The essentials''. Abingdon Press. (pp. 73-133)</ref> For Methodists, infant baptism signifies “an acceptance of the prevenient grace of God and as a confession on the part of the church of its responsibility for children in general and for every child in particular.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Methodist Review, Volume 101 |date=1918 |publisher=G. Lane & P. B. Sandford |page=464 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="MannsMeyer19842">{{cite book |last1=Manns |first1=Peter |title=Luther's Ecumenical Significance: An Interconfessional Consultation |last2=Meyer |first2=Harding |date=1984 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-0-8006-1747-9 |page=141 |language=English |quote=When modern Methodists expound infant baptism, they think first of " prevenient grace", for which infant baptism is said to be an effective, or at least a useful, sign.}}</ref> Methodist doctrine further emphasizes that justifying grace, essential for salvation, is received after repentance and a personal commitment to Christ as Savior.<ref name="UMC GBGM-Grace2">{{cite web |title=God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace |url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013416/http://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/walk.stm |archive-date=9 January 2008 |access-date=2 August 2007 |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM}}</ref><ref name="FMC20082">{{cite web |date=3 December 2008 |title=Baptism and Dedication |url=https://www.fmcic.ca/baptism-and-dedication/ |publisher=[[Free Methodist Church]] |quote=When they baptize babies, pastors should make sure that their prayers include clear requests that God will bring the children to a personal faith that "owns" what the parents are promising at a time when the children (who "belong" from day one) cannot act for themselves. And when they dedicate children, pastors should make sure that their prayers include clear gratitude to God for the fact that he is already at work in the life of that child, who already "belongs" in the Christian community.  Here’s what must be stressed: whether at the time of baptism (in the adult baptism tradition) or at the time of confirmation when the vows made earlier by the parents are personally "owned" (in the infant baptism tradition), it is faith in Jesus (dependent trust, not mere cognitive affirmation) that is crucial. Paul goes so far as to say that without faith and obedience, the old rite of circumcision has no value (Romans 2:25). The same is true of baptism. With either rite, clear evangelistic follow-through is crucial.}}</ref> While many Methodist denominations, such as the [[Free Methodist Church]] and [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]], practice infant baptism for families who request it, they also offer a rite of child dedication for those who prefer to delay baptism until their child can consciously profess faith.<ref name="FMC20082" /><ref name="AWMC20142">{{cite book |title=The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference) |publisher=[[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]] |year=2014 |location=[[Salem, Ohio|Salem]] |pages=140–146 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Churches ====
[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], [[Congregationalism|Congregational]], and [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed churches]] administer infant baptism based on [[covenant theology]], viewing baptism as "a sign and seal of the covenant of grace" and the "visible Word of God" (Fesko 2010, p. 4). They argue that baptism replaces circumcision as the covenant sign and that just as infants were circumcised under the old covenant, so now infants should be baptized under the new covenant (p. 8). Baptism is not merely a human act of profession but is "God’s visible covenant promise when accompanied by the Word" and serves as a "[[Means of grace#Reformed theology|means of grace]]" (p. 6). This perspective stresses that baptism is grounded in "God’s covenant dealings with His people," not in an individual’s decision or [[Sola fide|personal faith alone]] (p. 3).<ref>Fesko, J. V. (2010). ''Word, water, and Spirit: A Reformed perspective on baptism''. Reformation Heritage Books.</ref><ref>Westminster Confession, Chapter 28, Section 1 and especially section 3. Baptized people are considered part of the covenant of grace by faith unless they prove otherwise by committing apostasy.</ref>