Editing Iberian Peninsula (section)

==Geography and geology==
{{Main|Geography of Spain|Geography of Portugal|Geography of Andorra}}
[[File:MapaTopográficoPenínsulaIbérica.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Physical map of the Iberian Peninsula]]
The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, [[Italian Peninsula|Italian]], and [[Balkans|Balkan]].{{sfn|Sánchez Blanco|1988|pp=21–32}} It forms the westernmost portion of the larger [[Eurasia]]n landmass. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and on the north, west, and southwest by the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[Pyrenees]] mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip, located in [[Tarifa]] is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]].

The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583,254&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> and has very contrasting and uneven relief.{{Sfn|Lorenzo-Lacruz|Vicente-Serrano|López-Moreno|González-Hidalgo|2011|p=2582}} The mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula are mainly distributed from west to east, and in some cases reach altitudes of approximately 3000 [[Height above sea level|mamsl]], resulting in the region having the second highest mean altitude (637 mamsl) in [[Western Europe]].{{Sfn|Lorenzo-Lacruz|Vicente-Serrano|López-Moreno|González-Hidalgo|2011|p=2582}}

The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at [[Punta de Tarifa]] to the northernmost extremity at [[Punta de Estaca de Bares]] over a distance between lines of latitude of about {{convert|865|km|mi|abbr=on}} based on a [[Latitude#Degree length|degree length]] of {{convert|111|km|mi|abbr=on}} per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at [[Cabo da Roca]] to the easternmost extremity at [[Cap de Creus]] over a distance between lines of longitude at [[40th parallel north|40° N latitude]] of about {{convert|1155|km|mi|abbr=on}} based on an estimated degree length of about {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical [[Quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]] was compared by the geographer [[Strabo]].<ref>III.1.3.</ref> to an ox-hide.

{| class="wikitable" width ="60%" border = 2 align="center" style="margin: auto;"
|-
| width ="30%" align="center" |
| width ="40%" align="center" | [[Punta de Estaca de Bares]]<br />{{small|({{Coord|43|47|38|N|7|41|17|W|display=inline}})}}
| width ="30%" align="center" |
|-
| width ="30%" align="center" | [[Cabo da Roca]]<br />{{small|({{Coord|38|46|51|N|9|29|54|W|display=inline}})}}
| width ="40%" align="center" | [[File:Compass rose simple.svg|75px]]
| width ="30%" align="center" | [[Cap de Creus]]<br />{{small|({{Coord|42|19|09|N|3|19|19|E|display=inline}})}}
|-
| width ="30%" align="center" |
| width ="40%" align="center" | [[Punta de Tarifa]]<br />{{small|({{Coord|36|00|15|N|5|36|37|W|display=inline}})}}
| width ="10%" align="center" |
|}

About three quarters of that rough octagon is the [[Meseta Central]], a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fischer|first=T|year=1920|contribution=The Iberian Peninsula: Spain|editor-last=Mill|editor-first=Hugh Robert|title=The International Geography|location=New York and London|publisher=D. Appleton and Company|pages=368–377|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyUbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA368}}</ref> It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered [[Getafe]] just south of [[Madrid]]). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.

===Coastline===
[[File:Iberia Europe satfoto 2014067.jpg|thumb|The Iberian Peninsula and Southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014]]
The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is {{convert|3313|km|mi|abbr=on}}, {{convert|1660|km|mi|abbr=on}} on the Mediterranean side and {{convert|1653|km|mi|abbr=on}} on the Atlantic side.<ref>These figures sum the figures given in the Wikipedia articles on the geography of Spain and Portugal. Most figures from Internet sources on Spain and Portugal include the coastlines of the islands owned by each country and thus are not a reliable guide to the coastline of the peninsula. Moreover, the length of a coastline may vary significantly depending on where and how it is measured.</ref> The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of {{convert|115|-|120|m|ft|abbr=on}} lower than today at the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years [[Before Present|BP]].<ref>{{cite book|page=305|contribution=Evolution of groundwater systems at the European coastline|first=WM|last=Edmunds|author2=K Hinsby |author3=C Marlin |author4=MT Condesso de Melo |author5=M Manyano |author6=R Vaikmae |author7= Y Travi |title=Palaeowaters in Coastal Europe: Evolution of Groundwater Since the Late Pleistocene|editor1-first=W. M.|editor1-last=Edmunds|editor2-first=C. J.|editor2-last=Milne|publisher=Geological Society|year=2001|location=London|isbn=1-86239-086-X}}</ref> The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated {{convert|700|km|mi|abbr=on}} length of Atlantic shelf is only {{convert|10|-|65|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide. At the {{convert|500|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[isobath]], on the edge, the shelf drops off to {{convert|1000|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite book| contribution=Iberian Peninsula – Atlantic Coast|title=An Atlas of Oceanic Internal Solitary Waves| date=February 2004|publisher=Global Ocean Associates|url=http://www.internalwaveatlas.com/Atlas2_PDF/IWAtlas2_Pg087_IberianPeninsula.pdf|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref>

The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the [[Bay of Biscay]] on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at {{convert|4800|m|ft|abbr=on}} on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama [[seamount]]s, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by [[Nazaré Canyon]], which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Rivers===
[[File:Douro estuary.jpg|thumb|Discharge of the [[Douro]] into the Atlantic Ocean near Porto]]
{{Main|List of rivers of Spain|List of rivers of Portugal}}

The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the [[Ebro]], [[Douro]], [[Tagus]], [[Guadiana]] and [[Guadalquivir]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://listas.20minutos.es/lista/los-10-rios-mas-largos-de-espana-362085/ |title=Los 10 ríos mas largos de España |date=30 May 2013 |access-date=1 September 2018 |newspaper=[[20 Minutos]] |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://agrega.juntadeandalucia.es/repositorio/07072011/3c/es-an_2011070713_9100548/ODE-e318b0ac-67b1-3aa6-a5a1-26cdd2886095/2_el_territorio_y_la_hidrografa_espaola_ros_cuencas_y_vertientes.html |title=2. El territorio y la hidrografía española: ríos, cuencas y vertientes |access-date=1 September 2018 |work=[[Junta de Andalucía]] |archive-date=9 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409133130/http://agrega.juntadeandalucia.es/repositorio/07072011/3c/es-an_2011070713_9100548/ODE-e318b0ac-67b1-3aa6-a5a1-26cdd2886095/2_el_territorio_y_la_hidrografa_espaola_ros_cuencas_y_vertientes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.

The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.

===Mountains===
The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely [[mountainous]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/averroes/centros-tic/04005041/helvia/sitio/upload/tema_8.pdf |title=Tema 8.- El Relieve de España |first=José Antonio |last=Manzano Cara|language=es |publisher=[[Junta de Andalucía]] |access-date=1 September 2018}}</ref> The major mountain systems are:
* The [[Pyrenees]] and their foothills, the [[Pre-Pyrenees]], crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. [[Aneto]] in the [[Maladeta]] massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
[[File:Mulhacen north face.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Mulhacén]], the highest peak in the Iberian Peninsula]]
* The [[Cantabrian Mountains]] along the northern coast with the massive [[Picos de Europa]]. [[Torre de Cerredo]], at 2,648 m, is the highest point
* The [[Galician Massif|Galicia/Trás-os-Montes Massif]] in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Silurian graptolite biostratigraphy of the Galicia – Tras-os-Montes Zone (Spain and Portugal) |last1=Piçarra |first1=José Manuel |last2=Gutiérrez-Marco |first2=J. C. |last3=Sá |first3=Artur A. |last4=Meireles |first4=Carlos |last5=González-Clavijo |first5=E.|journal=[[Geologiska föreningen|GFF]]|date=1 June 2006|volume=128 |issue=2 |page=185 |doi=10.1080/11035890601282185 |bibcode=2006GFF...128..185P |hdl = 10261/30737 |s2cid=140712259 |issn=1103-5897}}</ref> [[Pena Trevinca]], at 2,127 m, is the highest point
* The [[Sistema Ibérico]], a complex system at the heart of the peninsula, in its central/eastern region. It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers. [[Moncayo]], at 2,313 m, is the highest point
* The [[Sistema Central]], dividing the [[Iberian Plateau]] into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of [[Continental Portugal]] (1,993 m) is located in the [[Serra da Estrela]]). [[Pico Almanzor]] in the [[Sierra de Gredos]] is the highest point, at 2,592 m
* The [[Montes de Toledo]], which also stretches into Portugal from the [[La Mancha]] natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is [[La Villuerca]] in the [[Sierra de Villuercas]], [[Extremadura]]
* The [[Sierra Morena]], which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m, [[Bañuela]] is the highest point
* The [[Baetic System]], which stretches between [[Cádiz]] and Gibraltar and northeast towards [[Alicante Province]]. It is divided into three subsystems:
** [[Prebaetic System]], which begins west of the [[Sierra Sur de Jaén]], reaching the [[Mediterranean Sea]] shores in [[Alicante Province]]. [[La Sagra (peak)|La Sagra]] is the highest point at 2,382 m.
** [[Subbaetic System]], which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from [[Cape Trafalgar]] in [[Cádiz Province]] across Andalusia to the [[Region of Murcia]].<ref>Edited by W Gibbons & T Moreno, ''Geology of Spain'', 2002, {{ISBN|978-1-86239-110-9}}</ref> The highest point, at {{convert|2027|m|abbr=on}}, is Peña de la Cruz in [[Sierra Arana]].
** [[Penibaetic System]], located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high [[Mulhacén]] in the [[Sierra Nevada (Spain)|Sierra Nevada]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spanishnature.com/birds/63-general-information/12-introduction-to-the-birds-of-spain.html?ml=5&mlt=system&tmpl=component|title=Introduction to the Birds of Spain|first=Peter|last=Jones|website=Spanishnature.com|access-date=11 April 2013|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808143555/https://www.spanishnature.com/birds/63-general-information/12-introduction-to-the-birds-of-spain.html?ml=5&mlt=system&tmpl=component|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Geology===
{{Main|Geology of the Iberian Peninsula}}
[[File:Geological units of the Iberian Peninsula EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Major Geologic Units of the Iberian Peninsula]]
The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the [[Ediacaran]] to the [[Holocene|Recent]], and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class [[mineral deposit]]s can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a [[Variscan orogeny|Hercynian]] [[craton]]ic block known as the [[Hesperian Massif|Iberian Massif]]. On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the [[Baetic System]]. These twofold chains are part of the [[Geology of the Alps|Alpine belt]]. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the [[magma]]-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the [[Sistema Ibérico]] and the [[Catalan Mediterranean System]].{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest [[lithium]] deposits belts in Europe (an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent), scattered along the Iberian Massif's {{ill|Central Iberian Zone|es|Zona Centroibérica}} and {{ill|Galicia Tras-Os-Montes Zone|es|Zona de Galicia Tras-Os-Montes}}.<ref>{{Cite journal<!--|pages=1–14-->|journal=[[Environmental Earth Sciences]]|year=2019|issue=78|page=1|doi=10.1007/s12665-019-8541-4|title=Evaluation of the impact of lithium exploitation at the C57 mine (Gonçalo, Portugal) on water, soil and air quality|first=Pedro M. S. M.|last=Rodrigues|first2=Ana Maria M. C.|last2=Antão|first3=Ricardo|last3=Rodrigues}}</ref> Also in the Iberian Massif, and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe, the peninsula hosts some [[uranium]] deposits, largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit.{{Sfn|Dahlkamp|1991|pp=232–233}}

The [[Iberian Pyrite Belt]], located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula, ranks among the most important [[Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|volcanogenic]] massive sulphide districts on Earth, and it has been exploited for millennia.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.igme.es/patrimonio/GEOSITES/Chapter_04_SGFG.pdf|title=Contextos geológicos españoles: una aproximación al patrimonio geológico de relevancia internacional|publisher=[[Instituto Geológico y Minero de España]]|year=2008|chapter=The Iberian Pyrite Belt|first1=F.|last1=Tornos|first2=E.|last2=López Pamo|first3=F.J.|last3=Sánchez España<!--|pages=56–64-->|page=57}}{{Dead link|date=December 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Portugal|Climate of Spain}}
[[File:Tossa de Mar View.jpg|thumb|The Mediterranean coast of Spain]]
The Iberian Peninsula's location and topography, as well as the effects of large [[atmospheric circulation]] patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation (roughly from 2,000&nbsp;mm to 300&nbsp;mm).{{Sfn|Lorenzo-Lacruz|Vicente-Serrano|López-Moreno|González-Hidalgo|2011|pp=2582–2583}}

The Iberian Peninsula has three dominant climate types. One of these is the [[oceanic climate]] seen in the northeast in which precipitation has barely any difference between winter and summer. However, most of Portugal and Spain have a [[Mediterranean climate]]; the [[Mediterranean climate#Warm-summer Mediterranean climate|warm-summer Mediterranean climate]] and the [[Mediterranean climate#Hot-summer Mediterranean climate|hot-summer Mediterranean climate]], with various differences in precipitation and temperature depending on latitude and position versus the sea, this applies greatly to the Portuguese and Galician Atlantic coasts where, due to [[upwelling]]/[[downwelling]] phenomena average temperatures in summer can vary through as much as 10&nbsp;°C (18&nbsp;°F) in only a few kilometers (e.g. [[Peniche, Portugal|Peniche]] vs [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]]) There are also more localized [[steppe climate]]s in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental Mediterranean climate. In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in [[Sierra Nevada (Spain)|Sierra Nevada]] and areas with extremely low precipitation and [[desert climate]]s or [[semi-desert climate]]s such as the [[Almería]] area, [[Murcia]] area and southern [[Alicante]] area.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/Atlas-climatologico/Atlas.pdf |title= IBERIAN CLIMATE ATLAS |website=Aemet.es |access-date=22 March 2024}}</ref> In the southwestern interior of the Iberian Peninsula the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]] and [[Alcoutim]], in southeast Portugal, averaging around {{convert|37|C|F}} in July.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=5402&k=and|title=Standard climate values for Córdoba|publisher=Aemet.es|access-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> The Spanish Mediterranean coast usually averages around {{convert|30|C|F}} in summer. In sharp contrast [[A Coruña]] at the northern tip of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] has a summer daytime high average at just below {{convert|23|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=1387&k=gal|title=Standard climate values for A Coruña|publisher=Aemet.es|access-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline. Winters in the Peninsula are for the most part, mild, although frosts are common in higher altitude areas of central Spain. The warmest winter nights are usually found in [[downwelling]] favourable areas of the west coast, such as on capes. Precipitation varies greatly between regions on the Peninsula, in December for example the northern west coast averages above {{convert|200|mm|abbr=on}} whereas the southeast can average below {{convert|30|mm|abbr=on}}. [[Insolation]] can vary from just 1,600 hours in the [[Bilbao]] area, to above 3,000 hours in the [[Algarve]] and [[Gulf of Cádiz]].