Editing Home Army (section)

===Jews===
{{see also|The Holocaust in Poland|Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust}}
[[File:Gesiowka.jpg|thumb|Jewish prisoners of [[Gęsiówka|Gęsiówka concentration camp]] with Polish resistance fighters of the Home Army after the camp's liberation during the [[Warsaw Uprising]], August 1944]]
Home Army members' attitudes toward [[Jews]] varied widely from unit to unit,<ref name="Radzilowski"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert D. Cherry|author2=Annamaria Orla-Bukowska|title=Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkLTSB7NHwgC&pg=PA105|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-4666-0|page=105}}</ref>{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=418}} and the topic remains controversial.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Jeffrey|last=Blutinger|jstor=10.5703/shofar.29.1.73|title=An Inconvenient Past: Post-Communist Holocaust Memorialization|journal=Shofar|volume=29|issue=1|pages=73–94|date=Fall 2010|doi=10.1353/sho.2010.0093|s2cid=144954562|issn=0882-8539 }}</ref> The Home Army answered to the National Council of the Polish government-in-exile, where some Jews served in leadership positions (e.g. [[Ignacy Schwarzbart]] and [[Szmul Zygielbojm]]),<ref>{{cite book|title=Jewish Responses to Persecution: 1938–1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZphWriAuuJYC&pg=PA478|year=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7591-2039-6|page=478}}</ref> though there were no Jewish representatives in the Government Delegation for Poland.{{r|Baumgarten 2009|p=110–114}} Traditionally, Polish historiography has presented the Home Army interactions with Jews in a positive light, while Jewish historiography has been mostly negative; most Jewish authors attribute the Home Army's hostility to endemic [[antisemitism in Poland]].<ref name="Armstrong 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=John Lowell |title=The Polish Underground and the Jews: A Reassessment of Home Army Commander Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski's Order 116 against Banditry |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |date=1994 |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=259–276 |jstor=4211476 |issn=0037-6795}}</ref> More recent scholarship has presented a mixed, ambivalent view of Home Army–Jewish relations. Both "profoundly disturbing acts of violence as well as extraordinary acts of aid and compassion" have been reported. In an analysis by [[Joshua D. Zimmerman]], postwar testimonies of Holocaust survivors reveal that their experiences with the Home Army were mixed even if predominantly negative.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zimmerman |first1=Joshua D. |author-link1=Joshua D. Zimmerman |title=The Polish Underground Home Army (AK) and the Jews: What Postwar Jewish Testimonies and Wartime Documents Reveal |journal=East European Politics and Societies and Cultures |date=2019 |volume=34 |pages=194–220 |doi=10.1177/0888325419844816|s2cid=204482531|doi-access=free }}</ref> Jews trying to seek refuge from Nazi genocidal policies were often exposed to greater danger by open resistance to German occupation.<ref name="Snyder 2015"/>{{rp|273}}

Members of the Home Army were named [[Righteous Among the Nations]] for risking their lives to save Jews, examples include [[Jan Karski]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=%20Jan%20Karski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4043972&ind=0|title=Karski Jan|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> [[Aleksander Kamiński]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=aleksander%20kaminski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4015530&ind=0|title=Kamiński Aleksander|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database}}</ref> [[Stefan Korboński]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=Stefan%20Korbo%C5%84ski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4015737&ind=0|title=Korbonski Stefan|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> [[Henryk Woliński]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=Henryk%20Woli%C5%84ski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4018283&ind=0|title=Woliński Henryk|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> [[Jan Żabiński]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=Jan%20%C5%BBabi%C5%84ski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4035464&ind=0|title=Żabiński Jan & Żabińska Antonina (Erdman)|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> [[Władysław Bartoszewski]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw%20Bartoszewski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4013821&ind=0|title=Bartoszewski Władysław|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> [[Mieczysław Fogg]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=Mieczys%C5%82aw%20Fogg&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4014853&ind=0|title=Fogg Mieczyslaw|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> [[Henryk Iwański]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=Henryk%20Iwa%C5%84ski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4034632&ind=0|title=Iwański Henryk & Iwańska Wiktoria|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> and [[Jan Dobraczyński]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://righteous.yadvashem.org/?search=Jan%20Dobraczy%C5%84ski&searchType=righteous_only&language=en&itemId=4014595&ind=0|title=Dobraczyński Jan|website=The Righteous Among The Nations Database|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> However, Polish historian Ewa Kołomańska noted that many individuals associated with the Home Army, involved in rescuing the Jews, did not receive the Righteous title.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Kołomańska |first1=Ewa |url=https://bip.ipn.gov.pl/download/4/11804/Zalaczniknr2doSIWZMakieta.pdf |title=Żydzi i wojsko polskie w XIX i XX wieku |last2= |first2= |date=2020 |publisher=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej |isbn=978-83-8098-894-1 |editor-last=Domański |editor-first=Tomasz |location=Kielce Warszawa |pages=234-250 |chapter=Polskie podziemie niepodległościowe w ratowaniu Żydów na Kielecczyźnie w latach 1939–1945 |editor-last2=Majcher-Ociesa |editor-first2=Edyta}}</ref>{{Rp|page=243|quote=Jest też znaczna liczba osób powiązanych z AK, które tytułu Sprawiedliwy wśród
Narodów Świata nie otrzymały, jednak ich pomoc pozwoliła przeżyć wielu osobom
narodowości żydowskiej|translation=There is also a significant number of people associated with the Home Army who did not receive the title of Righteous Among the Nations, but their help allowed many people of Jewish nationality to survive.}}

==== Daily operations ====
A Jewish partisan detachment served in the 1944 [[Warsaw Uprising]],<ref>Powstanie warszawskie w walce i dyplomacji - page 23 Janusz Kazimierz Zawodny, Andrzej Krzysztof Kunert  2005</ref><ref name="Krakowski 2003"/> and another in {{ill|Hanaczów|pl|Hanaczów}}.<ref name="pis2003">{{cite journal|url=http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media//files/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc-r2003-t2-n2_(4)/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc-r2003-t2-n2_(4)-s271-300/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc-r2003-t2-n2_(4)-s271-300.pdf|journal=Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość [Memory and Justice]|volume=2|issue=4|date=2003|author=Adam Puławski|title=Postrzeganie żydowskich oddziałów partyzanckich przez Armię Krajową i Delegaturę Rządu RP na Kraj|page=287|language=pl|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511122213/https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media//files/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc-r2003-t2-n2_(4)/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc-r2003-t2-n2_(4)-s271-300/Pamiec_i_Sprawiedliwosc-r2003-t2-n2_(4)-s271-300.pdf|archive-date= May 11, 2023}}</ref>{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=317}} The Home Army provided training and supplies to the [[Warsaw Ghetto]]'s [[Jewish Combat Organization]].<ref name="pis2003"/> It is likely that more Jews fought in the Warsaw Uprising than in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, some fought in both.<ref name="Snyder 2015"/>{{rp|273}} Thousands of Jews joined, or claimed to join, the Home Army in order to survive in hiding, but Jews serving in the Home Army were the exception rather than the rule. Most Jews in hiding could not pass as ethnic Poles and would have faced deadly consequences if discovered.{{sfn|Zimmerman|2015|p=5}}<ref name="Snyder 2015"/>{{rp|275}}

In February 1942, the Home Army Operational Command's Office of Information and Propaganda set up a Section for Jewish Affairs, directed by [[Henryk Woliński]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Wolinski.html|title=Henryk Wolinski|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509110612/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/henryk-wolinski|archive-date= May 9, 2023}}</ref> This section collected data about the situation of the Jewish population, drafted reports, and sent information to London. It also centralized contacts between Polish and Jewish military organizations. The Home Army also supported the [[Żegota|Relief Council for Jews in Poland]] (''Żegota'') as well as the formation of [[Jewish resistance under Nazi rule|Jewish resistance organizations]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=John Wolffe|author2=Open University|title=Religion in History: Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-QedEtzRncC&pg=PA240|year=2004|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-7107-2|page=240}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Yad Vashem]] Shoa Resource Center|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous_new/PDF_Articles/Activites_Zegota.pdf|title=Zegota, page 4/34 of the Report|access-date=17 March 2011|archive-date=21 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121061906/http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous_new/PDF_Articles/Activites_Zegota.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Holocaust====
From 1940 onward, the Home Army courier [[Jan Karski]] delivered the first eyewitness account of the Holocaust to the Western powers, after having personally visited the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] and a Nazi concentration camp.{{r|Baumgarten 2009|p=110–114}}<ref name="CherryOrla-Bukowska2007">{{cite book|author1=Robert Cherry|author2=Annamaria Orla-Bukowska|title=Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUp7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA119|date=7 June 2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4616-4308-1|pages=119–120}}</ref><ref name="Engel" />{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=54}} Another crucial role was played by [[Witold Pilecki]], who was the only person to volunteer to be imprisoned at [[Auschwitz]] (where he would spend three and a half years) to organize a resistance on the inside and to gather information on the atrocities occurring there to inform the Western Allies about [[The Holocaust|the fate of the Jewish population]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/5635746/the-remarkable-story-of-the-man-who-volunteered-to-enter-auschwitz-and-tell-the-world-about-it/|title=The Remarkable Story of the Man Who Volunteered to Enter Auschwitz|last=Ackerman|first=Elliot|date=26 July 2019|magazine=Time|access-date=9 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508130026/https://time.com/5635746/the-remarkable-story-of-the-man-who-volunteered-to-enter-auschwitz-and-tell-the-world-about-it/|archive-date= May 8, 2023}}</ref> Home Army reports from March 1943 described crimes committed by the Germans against the Jewish populace. AK commander General Stefan Rowecki estimated that 640,000 people had been murdered in Auschwitz between 1940 and March 1943, including 66,000 ethnic Poles and 540,000 Jews from various countries (this figure was revised later to 500,000).{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=188}} The Home Army started carrying out death sentences for [[szmalcownik]]s in Warsaw in the summer of 1943.<ref name="Drzewieniecki2019">{{cite book|editor=Joanna Drzewieniecki|author=Jarosław Piekałkiewicz|title=Dance with Death: A Holistic View of Saving Polish Jews during the Holocaust|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9W8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256|date=30 November 2019|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7618-7167-5|pages=256–257}}</ref>

[[Antony Polonsky]] observed that "the attitude of the military underground to the genocide is both more complex and more controversial [than its approach towards ''[[szmalcownik]]s'']. Throughout the period when it was being carried out, the Home Army was preoccupied with preparing for ... [the moment when] Nazi rule in Poland collapsed. It was determined to avoid premature military action and to conserve its strength (and weapons) for the crucial confrontation that, it was assumed, would determine the fate of Poland. ... [However,] to the Home Army, the Jews were not a part of 'our nation' and ... action to defend them was not to be taken if it endangered [the Home Army's] other objectives." He added that "it is probably unrealistic to have expected the Home Army—which was neither as well armed nor as well organized as its propaganda claimed—to have been able to do much to aid the Jews. The fact remains that its leadership did not want to do so."{{r|Cesarani & Kavanaugh|p=68}} Rowecki's attitudes shifted in the following months as the brutal reality of the Holocaust became more apparent, and the Polish public support for the Jewish resistance increased. Rowecki was willing to provide Jewish fighters with aid and resources when it contributed to "the greater war effort", but had concluded that providing large quantities of supplies to the Jewish resistance would be futile. This reasoning was the norm among the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], who believed that the Holocaust could only be halted by a significant military action.{{r|Baumgarten 2009|p=110–122}}

====Warsaw Ghetto Uprising====
{{Main|Warsaw Ghetto Uprising}}
The Home Army provided the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] with firearms, ammunition, and explosives,<ref name="Wdowiński">{{cite book |author=David Wdowiński |title=And we are not saved |year=1963 |page=222 |publisher=Philosophical Library |location=New York |isbn=0-8022-2486-5}} Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author."</ref> but only after it was convinced of the eagerness of the [[Jewish Combat Organization]] (''Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa'', ŻOB) to fight,{{r|Cesarani & Kavanaugh|p=67}} and after [[Władysław Sikorski]]'s intervention on the Organization's behalf.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rashke|first=Richard|title=Escape from Sobibor|orig-year=1983|year=1995|edition= 2nd|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252064791|pages=416}}</ref> Zimmerman describes the supplies as "limited but real".{{r|Baumgarten 2009|p=121-122}} Jewish fighters of the [[Jewish Military Union]] (''Żydowski Związek Wojskowy'', ŻZW) received from the Home Army, among other things, 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades.{{sfnp|Lukas|2012|p=175}} Some supplies were also provided to the ŻOB, but less than to ŻZW with whom the Home Army had closer ties and ideological similarities.<ref name="Wdowiński2">{{cite book|author=[[Dawid Wdowiński|David Wdowiński]]|title=And we are not saved|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1963|isbn=0-8022-2486-5|location=New York|page=222}} Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author".</ref> [[Antoni Chruściel]], commander of the Home Army in Warsaw, ordered the entire armory of the [[Wola (Warsaw)|Wola]] district transferred to the ghetto.<ref name=":3" /> In January 1943 the Home Army delivered a larger shipment of 50 pistols, 50 hand grenades, and several kilograms of explosives, along with a number of smaller shipments that carried a total of 70 pistols, 10 rifles, 2 hand machine guns, 1 light machine gun, ammunition, and over 150 kilograms of explosives.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="BaumgartenKenez2009-2">{{cite book|author=[[Peter Kenez]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPs1Vaf6F9QC&pg=PA110|title=The Attitude of the Polish Home Army (AK) to the Jewish Question during the Holocaust: the Case of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|date=January 2009|publisher=University of Delaware Press|isbn=978-0-87413-039-3|editor1=Murray Baumgarten|pages=121–122|editor2=[[Peter Kenez]]|editor3=Bruce Allan Thompson}}</ref> The number of supplies provided to the ghetto resistance has been sometimes described as insufficient, as the Home Army faced a number of dilemmas which forced it to provide no more than limited assistance to the Jewish resistance, such as supply shortages and the inability to arm its own troops, the view (shared by most of the Jewish resistance) that any wide-scale uprising in 1943 would be premature and futile, and the difficulty of coordinating with the internally divided Jewish resistance, coupled with the pro-Soviet attitude of the ŻOB.<ref name="MKPK-6">Monika Koszyńska, Paweł Kosiński, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230404031935/https://warszawa.ipn.gov.pl/download/88/138115/PomocAKdlaGetta1.pdf Pomoc Armii Krajowej dla powstańców żydowskich w getcie warszawskim (wiosna 1943 r.)], 2012, Instytut Pamięci Narodowej. P.6. Quote: W okresie prowadzenia walki bieżącej ZWZ-AK stanowczo unikało starć zbrojnych, które byłyby skazane na niepowodzenie i okupione ofiarami o skali trudnej
do przewidzenia. To podstawowe założenie w praktyce uniemożliwiało AK czynne wystąpienie po stronie Żydów planujących demonstracje zbrojne w likwidowanych przez Niemców gettach... Kłopotem była też niemożność wytypowania przez rozbitą wewnętrznie konspirację żydowską przedstawicieli do prowadzenia rozmów z dowództwem AK.... Ograniczony rozmiar akowskiej pomocy związany był ze stałymi niedoborami uzbrojenia własnych oddziałów... oraz z lewicowym (prosowieckim) obliczem ŻOB...</ref><ref name=":3" /> During the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Home Army units tried to blow up the Ghetto wall twice, carried out diversionary actions outside the Ghetto walls, and attacked German sentries sporadically near the Ghetto walls.<ref name="MKPK-10-18">Monika Koszyńska, Paweł Kosiński, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230404031935/https://warszawa.ipn.gov.pl/download/88/138115/PomocAKdlaGetta1.pdf Pomoc Armii Krajowej dla powstańców żydowskich w getcie warszawskim (wiosna 1943 r.)], 2012, Instytut Pamięci Narodowej. P.10-18</ref><ref name="Zimmerman2015-217218">{{cite book|author=Joshua D. Zimmerman|title=The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4dsCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA217|date=5 June 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01426-8|pages=217–218}}</ref> According to [[Marian Fuks (historian)|Marian Fuks]], the Ghetto uprising would not have been possible without supplies from the Polish Home Army.<ref>{{cite interview|url=http://publica.pl/teksty/zimmerman-podziemie-polskie-a-zydzi-solidarnosc-zdrada-i-wszystko-pomiedzy-53475.html|title=Zimmerman: Podziemie polskie a Żydzi. Solidarność, zdrada i wszystko pomiędzy|language=pl|trans-title=Zimmerman: Polish underground and Jews. Solidarity, betrayal and everything in between|subject=Joshua D. Zimmerman|interviewer=Filip Mazurczak|date=October 9, 2015|website=ResPublica}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Fuks|first=Marian|author-link=Marian Fuks (historian)|date=1989|title=Pomoc Polaków bojownikom getta warszawskiego|trans-title=Assistance of Poles in the Warsaw ghetto uprising|url=https://cbj.jhi.pl/documents/787962/145/|journal=Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego|language=pl|volume=1|issue=149|pages=43–52, 144|quote=Without assistance of Poles and even their active participation in some actions, without the supply of arms from the Polish underground movement - the outbreak of the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto was impossible.}}</ref>

A year later, during the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, the [[Batalion Zośka|Zośka Battalion]] liberated hundreds of Jewish inmates from the [[Gęsiówka]] section of the [[Warsaw concentration camp]].<ref name="Snyder 2015"/>{{rp|275}}

====Attitude to fugitives====
[[File:Biuletyn Informacyjny 2 września 1943.JPG|thumb|1943 ''[[Biuletyn Informacyjny|Information Bulletin]]'' article on ''[[Kedyw]]'' execution of ''[[szmalcownik]]'' Jan Grabiec, who had blackmailed residents of villages that hid Jews]]
Because it was the largest Polish resistance organization, the Home Army's attitude towards Jewish fugitives often determined their fate.<ref name="Armstrong 1994"/> According to Antony Polonsky the Home Army saw Jewish fugitives as security risks.{{r|Cesarani & Kavanaugh|p=66|q=In general, though, the Home Army tended to see individual Jewish fugitives as security risks that were likely to endanger its own position.}} At the same time, AK's "paper mills" supplied [[Identity document forgery|forged identification documents]] to many Jewish fugitives, enabling them to pass as Poles.<ref name="Snyder 2015"/>{{rp|275}} Home Army published a leaflet in 1943 stating that "Every Pole is obligated to help those in hiding. Those who refuse them aid will be punished on the basis of...treason to the Polish Nation".{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=194}} Nevertheless, Jewish historians have asserted that the main cause for the low survival rates of escaping Jews was the [[antisemitism]] of the Polish population.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Wilhelm Heitmeyer|author2=John Hagan|title=International Handbook of Violence Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4mqsik_VDcC&pg=PA154|date=19 December 2005|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-3980-5|page=154}}</ref>

Attitudes towards Jews in the Home Army were mixed.{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=418}} A few AK units actively hunted down Jews,{{r|Bauer 1989|p=238}}{{r|Connelly 2012}} and in particular two district commanders in the northeast of Poland (Władysław Liniarski of Białystok and Janusz Szlaski of Nowogródek) openly and routinely persecuted Jewish partisans and fugitives;{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|pp=267-298}} however, these were the only two provinces, out of seventeen, where such orders were issued by provincial commanders.<ref>Zimmerman, Joshua D. (2 July 2015). "Rethinking the Polish Underground". Interview in Yeshiva University News.</ref> The extent of such behaviors in the Home Army overall has been disputed;{{r|Piotrowski|pp=88-90}}<ref name="Eliach"/> [[Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)|Tadeusz Piotrowski]] wrote that the bulk of the Home Army's antisemitic behavior can be ascribed to a small minority of members,{{r|Piotrowski|pp=88–90}} often affiliated with the far-right [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democracy]] (ND, or ''Endecja'') party, whose [[National Armed Forces]] organization was mostly integrated into the Home Army in 1944.{{r|Paulsson 2002|p=17}}{{r|Paulsson 2002|p=45}} [[Adam Puławski]] has suggested that some of these incidents are better understood in the context of the Polish–Soviet conflict, as some of the [[Soviet partisans in Poland|Soviet-affiliated partisan units]] that AK units attacked or was attacked by had a sizable Jewish presence.<ref name="pis2003"/> In general, AK units in the east were more likely to be hostile towards Jewish partisans, who in turn were more closely associated with the Soviet underground, while AK units in the west were more helpful towards the Jews. The Home Army had a more favorable attitude towards Jewish civilians and was more hesitant or hostile towards independent Jewish partisans, whom it suspected of pro-Soviet sympathies.{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=299}} General Rowecki believed that antisemitic attitudes in eastern Poland were related to Jewish involvement with Soviet partisans.{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=189}} Some AK units were friendly to Jews,{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=346}} and in Hanaczów Home Army officers hid and protected an entire 250-person Jewish community, and supplied a Jewish Home Army platoon.{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|pp=314-318}} The Home Army leadership punished a number of perpetrators of antisemitic violence in its ranks, in some cases sentencing them to death.{{r|Piotrowski|pp=88-90}}

Most of the underground press was sympathetic towards Jews,{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=188}} and the Home Army's Bureau of Information and Propaganda was led by operatives who were pro-Jewish and represented the liberal wing of Home Army;{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=188}} however, the bureau's anti-communist sub-division, created as a response to communist propaganda, was led by operatives who held strong anti-communist and anti-Jewish views, including the ''[[Żydokomuna]]'' stereotype.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zalesiński|first=Łukasz|date=2017|title=Żołnierze akcji "Antyk" kontra komuniści|work=Polska Zbrojna|url=http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/home/articleshow/23942?t=Zolnierze-akcji-Antyk-kontra-komunisci}}</ref>{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|p=188}} The perceived association between Jews and communists was actively reinforced by [[Operation Antyk]], whose initial reports "tended to conflate communists with Jews, dangerously disseminating the notion that Jewish loyalties were to Soviet Russia and communism rather than to Poland", and which repeated the notion that antisemitism was a "useful tool in the struggle against Soviet Russia".{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2015|pp=208, 357}}