Editing History of Tajikistan (section)

==Russian and Soviet rule (1868–1991)==

===Russian vassalage (1868–1920)===
{{See also|The Great Game|Russian Turkestan}}
[[File:Tajikistan Map TI-map.gif|thumb|[[CIA]] map of Tajikistan]]
[[File:Tajikistan OVER.jpg|thumb|Map of Tajikistan]]
Russian [[Imperialism]] led to the [[Russian Empire]]'s conquest of [[Central Asia]] during the late 19th century's [[Great Game|Imperial Era]].  Between 1864 and 1885 Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of [[Russian Turkestan]], the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the [[Emirate of Bukhara]] and [[Khanate of Kokand]] ( from today's border with [[Kazakhstan]] in the north to the [[Caspian Sea]] in the west and the border with [[Afghanistan]] in the south). Tashkent was conquered in 1865 and in 1867 the Turkestan [[Guberniya|Governor-Generalship]] was created with [[Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman]] as the first Governor-General.<ref name=TajHistory>''The History of Tajik SSR'', Maorif Publ. House, Dushanbe, 1983, Chapter V {{in lang|ru}}.</ref><ref>W. Fierman, "The Soviet 'transformation' of Central Asia", in: W. Fierman, ed., ''Soviet Central Asia'', Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1991.</ref>

[[File:Sartscrop.jpg|thumb|Tajik men and boys, 1905–1915|alt=Two Sart men and two Sart boys posed outside, in front of wall, in the early 20th century.]]
The expansion was motivated by Russia's economic interests and was connected with the [[American Civil War]] in the early 1860s, which severely interrupted the supply of cotton fiber to the Russian industry and forced Russia to turn to Central Asia as an alternative source of cotton supply as well as a market for Russian made goods. The Russian regime in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets).<ref name="ReferenceA">A Country Study: Tajikistan, Tajikistan under Russian Rule, Library of Congress Call Number DK851 .K34 1997, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+tj0013%29 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120103810/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+tj0013%29 |date=2022-01-20 }}</ref> By 1885 Tajikistan's territory was either ruled by the Russian Empire or its [[vassal state]], the Emirate of Bukhara, nevertheless Tajiks felt little Russian influence.<ref name=ReferenceA />

Russian Empire, being a much bigger state with a huge population and having an advanced military, had little difficulty in conquering the regions inhabited by Tajiks, meeting fierce resistance only at [[Jizzakh]], [[Ura-Tyube]], and when their garrison in [[Samarkand]] was besieged in 1868 by forces from [[Shahr-e Sabz]] and the inhabitants of the city. The army of the [[Emirate of Bukhara]] was utterly defeated in three battles, and on 18 June 1868 Emir Mozaffar al-Din (r. 1860–1885) signed a peace treaty with the Governor-General of Russian Turkestan Von Kaufman. Samarkand and the Upper [[Zeravshan]] were annexed by Russia and the country was opened to Russian merchants. The [[emir]] retained his throne as a vassal of Russia and with Russian help he established control over [[Shahr-e Sabz]], the mountainous regions in the upper Zeravshan Valley(1870) and the principalities of the western Pamir (1895).

During the late 19th century the [[Jadid]]ists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. Although the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian the Russians viewed the movement as a threat.<ref>anti-Russian, tsarist officials in Turkestan found their kind of education even more threatening than traditional Islamic teaching, A Country Study: Tajikistan, Tajikistan under Russian Rule, Library of Congress Call Number DK851 .K34 1997, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+tj0013%29 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120103810/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+tj0013%29 |date=2022-01-20 }}</ref> Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in [[Khujand]] over the threat of forced [[conscription]] during [[World War I]]. Despite Russian troops quickly bringing Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in Tajikistan.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

At the end of August 1920 the last emir, Sayyid Alim Khan, was overthrown by Soviet troops. On 6 October 1920 the emirate was abolished and the [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] was proclaimed.

===Basmachi movement (1916–1924)===
{{Main|Basmachi movement}}
[[File:Negotiations with basmachs Fergana, 1921.jpg|thumb|Soviet negotiations with ''[[basmachi]]'', 1921]]
The [[Basmachi movement]] or Basmachi Revolt was an uprising against [[Russian Empire|Russian Imperial]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rule that arose after the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia.

The movement's roots lay in the anti-conscription violence of 1916 that erupted when the Russian Empire began to draft Muslims for army service during [[World War I]].<ref>Victor Spolnikov, "Impact of Afghanistan's War on the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia," in Hafeez Malik, ed, Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 101.</ref> In the months following the [[October Revolution|October 1917 Revolution]] the [[Bolsheviks]] seized power in many parts of the Russian Empire and the [[Russian Civil War]] began. Turkestani Muslim political movements attempted to form an autonomous government in the city of [[Kokand]], in the [[Ferghana Valley]]. The Bolsheviks launched an assault on Kokand in February 1918 and carried out a general massacre of up to 25,000 people.<ref name="Uzbekistan pg. 30">Uzbekistan, By Thomas R McCray, Charles F Gritzner, pg. 30, 2004, {{ISBN|1438105517}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB"/> The massacre rallied support to the Basmachi movements who waged  [[Basmachi movement#The Kokand autonomy and the start of hostilities|a guerrilla war and a conventional war]] that seized control of large parts of the [[Ferghana Valley]] and much of [[Turkestan]].

The fortunes of the decentralized movement fluctuated throughout the early 1920s but by 1923 the Red Army's extensive campaigns dealt the Basmachis many defeats. After major [[Red Army]] campaigns and concessions regarding economic and [[Islam]]ic practices in the mid-1920s, the military fortunes and popular support of the Basmachi declined.<ref>Michael Rywkin, ''Moscow's Muslim Challenge: Soviet Central Asia'' (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, Inc, 1990), 41.</ref> Resistance to Soviet/Russian rule did flare up again to a lesser extent in response to [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization campaigns]] in the pre-WWII Era.<ref>Martha B. Olcott, "The Basmachi or Freemen's Revolt in Turkestan, 1918–24," ''Soviet Studies'', Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul., 1981), 361.</ref>

===Soviet Rule (1920–1991)===
{{Main|Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic}}
[[File:Flag of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (1953–1991); Flag of Tajikistan (1991–1992).svg|thumb|Flag of the Tajik SSR]]

In 1924, the [[Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] was created as a part of [[Uzbekistan]], but when national borders were drawn in 1928 (during the [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union#National delimitation in Central Asia|administrative delimitation]]) the ancient Tajik cities of [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarkand]] were placed outside the [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Tajikistan SSR]]. As citizens of the newly established [[Uzbek SSR]], many Tajiks came under pressure to conform to their newly ascribed "Uzbek" identity, and under threat of exile, many were [[Uzbekization|forced to change their identity]] and sign in passports as "Uzbeks".  Tajik schools were closed and Tajiks were not appointed to leadership positions simply because of their ethnicity.

Between 1927 and 1934 [[collectivization]] of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region.<ref name="countrystudies.us">Collectivization, U.S. Library of Congress, http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/9.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014202805/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/9.htm |date=2012-10-14 }}</ref> Soviet collectivization policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived the [[Basmachi movement]]. Some small scale industrial development also occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure.<ref name="countrystudies.us" />

Two rounds of Soviet purges directed by Moscow (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people, from all levels of the [[Communist Party of Tajikistan]].<ref name="The Purges 1996">The Purges, U.S. Library of Congress, Tajikistan Country study, 1996, http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/10.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014204552/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/10.htm |date=2012-10-14 }}</ref> Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary.<ref name="The Purges 1996" /> Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of [[Russians]] among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/23.htm Tajikistan – Ethnic Groups] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207115900/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/23.htm |date=2010-12-07 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''</ref> [[Bobojon Ghafurov]], Tajikistan's [[First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan]] from 1946 to 1956 was the only Tajikistani politician of significance outside the country during the Soviet Era.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> He was followed in office by [[Tursun Uljabayev]] (1956–61), [[Jabbor Rasulov]] (1961–1982), and [[Rahmon Nabiyev]] (1982–1985, 1991–1992).

Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during [[World War II]] around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000(4%)<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan'', by Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzaheh, 2010, second edition, pg 383</ref> and 120,000(8%)<ref>Vadim Erlikman. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke spravochnik. Moscow 2004; {{ISBN|5-93165-107-1}}, pp. 23–35</ref> of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during [[World War II]].<ref>Tajikistan, viewed 2014, http://ww2db.com/country/tajikistan {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726045015/http://ww2db.com/country/tajikistan |date=2014-07-26 }}</ref> Following the war and Stalin's reign attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan.<ref name="ReferenceB">Post War Period, U.S. Library of Congress, http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/11.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014205135/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/11.htm |date=2012-10-14 }}</ref> During 1957–58 [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s [[Virgin Lands Campaign]] focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]].<ref name="ReferenceB" />

In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,<ref>Boris Rumer, ''Soviet Central Asia: A Tragic Experiment'', Unwin Hyman, London, 1989, p. 126.</ref> the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups,<ref>''Statistical Yearbook of the USSR 1990'', Goskomstat, Moscow, 1991, p. 115 {{in lang|ru}}.</ref> and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.<ref>''Statistical Yearbook of the USSR 1990'', Goskomstat, Moscow, 1991, p. 210 {{in lang|ru}}.</ref>

===Perestroika and glasnost===
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|Perestroika|Glasnost}}
[[File:RIAN archive 699865 Dushanbe riots, February 1990.jpg|thumb|Protests in Dushanbe, February 1990]]
Living standards were undermined during the tenure of Kahar Mahkamov as first secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1985. Mahkamov's attempted marketisation of the Tajik economy aggravated the poor living conditions and unemployment. On the eve of the Soviet collapse Tajikistan was suffering from a declining economy and dim prospects for recovery.

====Priority over Soviet Union laws and negotiations on a new treaty====
{{Main|Parade of sovereignties|War of Laws|New Union Treaty}}
The [[glasnost]] policy of openness initiated by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] offered disgruntled Tajiks a chance to voice their grievances.

==== Soviet coup attempt, the transition period and the end of the Soviet Union ====
{{Main|1991 Soviet coup attempt|Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Transition period and cessation of the existence of the Soviet Union|Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union}}

In 1991, the [[Soviet Union]] collapsed, and Tajikistan [[Independence Day (Tajikistan)|declared its independence]].