Editing History of Lithuania (section)

====Lithuania at its peak under Vytautas====
[[File:Witold Duke of Lithuania seal.PNG|thumb|Grand Duke [[Vytautas]], a Lithuanian hero, was [[Jogaila]]'s first cousin and rival]]
The [[Lithuanian Civil War (1389–92)|Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392]] involved the Teutonic Knights, the Poles, and the competing factions loyal to Jogaila and [[Vytautas]] in Lithuania. Amid ruthless warfare, the grand duchy was ravaged and threatened with collapse. Jogaila decided that the way out was to make amends and recognize the rights of Vytautas, whose original goal, now largely accomplished, was to recover the lands he considered his inheritance. After negotiations, Vytautas ended up gaining far more than that; from 1392 he became practically the ruler of Lithuania, a self-styled "Duke of Lithuania," under a compromise with Jogaila known as the [[Ostrów Agreement]]. Technically, he was merely Jogaila's regent with extended authority. Jogaila realized that cooperating with his able cousin was preferable to attempting to govern (and defend) Lithuania directly from Kraków.<ref name="Baczkowski 68-74"/><ref name="Ochmański 79-80">Ochmański (1982), pp. 79–80</ref>

Vytautas had been frustrated by Jogaila's Polish arrangements and rejected the prospect of Lithuania's subordination to Poland.<ref name="Lukowski 40-41"/> Under Vytautas, a considerable centralization of the state took place, and the Catholicized [[Lithuanian nobility]] became increasingly prominent in state politics.<ref name="Lukowski 55-56"/> The centralization efforts began in 1393–1395, when Vytautas appropriated their provinces from several powerful regional dukes in Ruthenia.<ref name="Bumblauskas 48-50">Eidintas et al. (2013), pp. 48–50</ref> Several invasions of Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights occurred between 1392 and 1394, but they were repelled with the help of Polish forces. Afterwards, the Knights abandoned their goal of conquest of Lithuania proper and concentrated on subjugating and keeping Samogitia. In 1395, [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia]], the Order's formal superior, prohibited the Knights from raiding Lithuania.<ref name="Ochmański 80-82"/>

In 1395, Vytautas conquered [[Smolensk]], and in 1397, he conducted a victorious expedition against a branch of the Golden Horde. Now he felt he could afford independence from Poland and in 1398 refused to pay the tribute due to Queen Jadwiga. Seeking freedom to pursue his internal and Ruthenian goals, Vytautas had to grant the Teutonic Order a large portion of Samogitia in the [[Treaty of Salynas]] of 1398. The conquest of Samogitia by the Teutonic Order greatly improved its military position as well as that of the associated [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]]. Vytautas soon pursued attempts to retake the territory, an undertaking for which needed the help of the Polish king.<ref name="Ochmański 80-82">Ochmański (1982), pp. 80–82</ref><ref name="Lukowski 44-45"/>

During Vytautas' reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its territorial expansion, but his ambitious plans to subjugate all of Ruthenia were thwarted by his disastrous defeat in 1399 at the [[Battle of the Vorskla River]], inflicted by the Golden Horde. Vytautas survived by fleeing the battlefield with a small unit and realized the necessity of a permanent alliance with Poland.<ref name="Ochmański 80-82"/><ref name="Lukowski 44-45">Lukowski & Zawadzki (2001), pp. 44–45</ref>

[[File:Oldest surviving writing in Lithuanian language.jpg|thumb|left|Oldest surviving [[manuscript]] in the [[Lithuanian language]] (beginning of the 16th century), rewritten from a 15th-century original text]]
The original Union of Krewo of 1385 was renewed and redefined on several occasions, but each time with little clarity due to the competing Polish and Lithuanian interests. Fresh arrangements were agreed to in the "[[Polish–Lithuanian union|unions]]" of [[Pact of Vilnius and Radom|Vilnius (1401)]], [[Union of Horodło|Horodło (1413)]], [[Union of Grodno (1432)|Grodno (1432)]] and [[Union of Kraków and Vilna|Vilnius (1499)]].<ref name="Lukowski 41-42">Lukowski & Zawadzki (2001), pp. 41–42</ref> In the Union of Vilnius, Jogaila granted Vytautas a lifetime rule over the grand duchy. In return, Jogaila preserved his formal supremacy, and Vytautas promised to "stand faithfully with the Crown and the King." Warfare with the Order resumed. In 1403, [[Pope Boniface IX]] banned the Knights from attacking Lithuania, but in the same year Lithuania had to agree to the [[Peace of Raciąż]], which mandated the same conditions as in the Treaty of Salynas.<ref name="Ochmański 82-83">Ochmański (1982), pp. 82–83</ref>

Secure in the west, Vytautas turned his attention to the east once again. The campaigns fought between 1401 and 1408 involved Smolensk, [[Pskov]], Moscow and [[Veliky Novgorod]]. Smolensk was retained, Pskov and Veliki Novgorod ended up as Lithuanian dependencies, and a lasting territorial division between the Grand Duchy and Moscow was agreed in 1408 in the treaty of [[Ugra River (Oka)|Ugra]], where a great battle failed to materialize.<ref name="Ochmański 82-83"/><ref name="Baczkowski 89-90">Krzysztof Baczkowski – ''Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506)'' (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370–1506)), pp. 89–90</ref>

[[File:Jan Matejko, Bitwa pod Grunwaldem.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Grunwald]] was one of the largest battles in [[Medieval Europe]] and is regarded as one of the most important victories in the history of Lithuania]]
The decisive war with the Teutonic Knights (the [[Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War|Great War]]) was preceded in 1409 with a [[Samogitian uprisings|Samogitian uprising]] supported by Vytautas. Ultimately the Lithuanian–Polish alliance was able to defeat the Knights at the [[Battle of Grunwald]] on 15 July 1410, but the allied armies failed to take [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg]], the Knights' fortress-capital. Nevertheless, the unprecedented total battlefield victory against the Knights permanently removed the threat that they had posed to Lithuania's existence for centuries. The [[Peace of Thorn (1411)]] allowed Lithuania to recover Samogotia, but only until the deaths of Jogaila and Vytautas, and the Knights had to pay a large monetary reparation.<ref name="Ochmański 83-84">Ochmański (1982), pp. 83–84</ref><ref name="Baczkowski 90-100">Krzysztof Baczkowski – ''Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506)'' (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370–1506)), pp. 90–100</ref><ref name="Bumblauskas 50–53">Eidintas et al. (2013), pp. 50–53</ref>

The [[Union of Horodło]] (1413) incorporated Lithuania into Poland again, but only as a formality. In practical terms, Lithuania became an equal partner with Poland, because each country was obliged to choose its future ruler only with the consent of the other, and the Union was declared to continue even under a new dynasty. Catholic Lithuanian boyars were to enjoy the same privileges as Polish nobles (''[[szlachta]]''). 47 top Lithuanian clans were colligated with 47 Polish noble families to initiate a future brotherhood and facilitate the expected full unity. Two administrative divisions (Vilnius and Trakai) were established in Lithuania, patterned after the existing Polish models.<ref name="Ochmański 84-85">Ochmański (1982), pp. 84–85</ref><ref name="Baczkowski 103-108">Krzysztof Baczkowski – ''Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506)'' (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370–1506)), pp. 103–108</ref>

Vytautas practiced religious toleration and his grandiose plans also included attempts to influence the Eastern Orthodox Church, which he wanted to use as a tool to control Moscow and other parts of Ruthenia. In 1416, he elevated [[Gregory Tsamblak]] as his chosen Orthodox patriarch for all of Ruthenia (the established Orthodox [[Metropolitan bishop]] remained in Vilnius to the end of the 18th century).<ref name="Bumblauskas 48-50"/><ref name="Ochmański 85-86"/> These efforts were also intended to serve the goal of global unification of the Eastern and Western churches. Tsamblak led an Orthodox delegation to the [[Council of Constance]] in 1418.<ref name="Bumblauskas 53–57"/> The Orthodox synod, however, would not recognize Tsamblak.<ref name="Ochmański 85-86"/> The grand duke also established new Catholic bishoprics in Samogitia (1417)<ref name="Bumblauskas 53–57"/> and in Lithuanian Ruthenia ([[Lutsk]] and Kyiv).<ref name="Ochmański 85-86">Ochmański (1982), pp. 85–86</ref>

The [[Gollub War]] with the Teutonic Knights followed and in 1422, in the [[Treaty of Melno]], the grand duchy permanently recovered Samogitia, which terminated its involvement in the wars with the Order.<ref name="Ochmański 85-87">Ochmański (1982), pp. 85–87</ref> Vytautas' shifting policies and reluctance to pursue the Order made the survival of German [[East Prussia]] possible for centuries to come.<ref name="Ochmański 87-89"/> Samogitia was the last region of Europe to be Christianized (from 1413).<ref name="Bumblauskas 53–57">Eidintas et al. (2013), pp. 53–57</ref><ref name="Bumblauskas 17">Eidintas et al. (2013), p. 17</ref> Later, different foreign policies were prosecuted by Lithuania and Poland, accompanied by conflicts over [[Podolia]] and [[Volhynia]], the grand duchy's territories in the southeast.<ref name="Lukowski 44-48">Lukowski & Zawadzki (2001), pp. 44–48</ref>

Vytautas' greatest successes and recognition occurred at the end of his life, when the [[Crimean Khanate]] and the [[Volga Tatars]] came under his influence. Prince [[Vasily I of Moscow]] died in 1425, and Vytautas then administered the Grand Duchy of Moscow together with his daughter, Vasily's widow [[Sophia of Lithuania]]. In 1426–1428 Vytautas triumphantly toured the eastern reaches of his empire and collected huge tributes from the local princes.<ref name="Ochmański 87-89"/> Pskov and Veliki Novgorod were incorporated to the grand duchy in 1426 and 1428.<ref name="Bumblauskas 53–57"/> At the [[Congress of Lutsk]] in 1429, Vytautas negotiated the issue of his crowning as the King of Lithuania with Holy Roman Emperor [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]] and Jogaila. That ambition was close to being fulfilled, but in the end was thwarted by last-minute intrigues and Vytautas' death. Vytautas' cult and legend originated during his later years and have continued until today.<ref name="Ochmański 87-89">Ochmański (1982), pp. 87–89</ref>