Editing History of Latvia (section)

==Russian period, 1721/95–1915/18==
{{Main|Governorate of Livonia|Courland Governorate|Vitebsk Governorate}}
[[File:Darstellung der neuen auf Keiserl(ichen) Befehl i. J. 1783.jpeg|thumbnail|right|Map of Riga and Reval Lieutenancies, 1783]]
In 1700 the [[Great Northern War]] between Sweden and Russia started largely because [[Peter the Great]] wanted to secure and enlarge Russian access to the Baltic ports. In 1710 Russians conquered Riga and [[capitulation of Estonia and Livonia|Estonia and Livonia]] capitulated. Losses from the military actions were multiplied by the [[Great Northern War plague outbreak]] which killed up to 75% of people in some areas.

In 1713 Peter established the Riga Governorate, and after various administrative and territorial reforms, the [[Governorate of Livonia]] was finally established in 1796. Latvians call it Vidzeme Governorate (''[[Vidzeme]]s guberņa''). Sweden officially gave up its claims to Swedish Livonia with the 1721 [[Treaty of Nystad]]. The Treaty enshrined the existing privileges and freedoms of the German [[Baltic nobility]]. They were allowed to maintain their financial system, existing customs border, self-governing provincial Landtags and city councils, [[Lutheran]] religion and German language. This special position in the Russian Empire was reconfirmed by all Russian Emperors from [[Peter the Great]] (reigned 1682–1725) to [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Imperial Russian foreign policy |last= Ragsdale |first= Hugh |author2=V. N. Ponomarev |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-0-521-44229-9 |page=42 }}</ref> (reigned 1855–1881). Only the 1889 judicial reform imposed Russian laws and a program of [[Russification]] enforced school education in Russian.
[[File:Nikolaja vārti (Daugavpils cietoksnis).JPG|thumbnail|right|Nicholas gate of Daugavpils fortress]]
After the [[First Partition of Poland]] in 1772 Russia gained [[Inflanty Voivodeship]] which was first included in the [[Mogilev Governorate]] and after 1802 in [[Vitebsk Governorate]]. This led to the increased cultural and linguistic separation of [[Latgalians (modern)|Latgalians]] from the rest of ethnic Latvians. A large [[Daugavpils fortress]] was built here.

After the [[Third Partition of Poland]] and financial settlement with the last Duke of Courland and Semigallia in 1795 the [[Courland Governorate]] was created in which the Germans retained their privileges and autonomy for another century. Russian empire now possessed all the territories inhabited by Latvians.

In 1812 [[Napoleon|Napoleon's]] troops [[French invasion of Russia|invaded Russia]] and the Prussian units under the leadership of the field marshal [[Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg|Yorck]] occupied Courland and approached Riga and the [[Battle of Mesoten]] was fought. Napoleon proclaimed restoration of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia under French and Polish protectorate. The Russian governor-general of Riga [[Ivan Essen]] was expecting attack, and set the wooden houses of Riga suburbs on fire to deflect the invaders leaving thousands of city residents homeless. However, [[Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg|Yorck]] did not attack Riga and in December Napoleon's army retreated.

===Emancipation of peasantry===
[[File:Peasants-speading-hay-for-drying-by-Brotze.jpg|thumbnail|right|Latvian peasant couple working, 18–19th century]]

====Livonian peasant law, 1804====
After the October 1802 Kauguri rebellion, czarist authorities reacted with the law of February 20, 1804, which was aimed at improving peasant condition in the Livonian Governorate. Peasants no longer were tied to the land owner, but to the land, so they could be sold only together with the land. Peasants were divided in two classes – people of manors and plowmen. Plowmen were divided into farm-owners and free people. Farms from now on could be inherited within the family. Amount and length of socage now was regulated and limited. This law was opposed by the nobles, who in 1809 secured changes in the law which again gave them more power over peasants and socage.<ref name="Zemnieku brīvlaišana">{{Cite web |url=http://www.letonika.lv/groups/default.aspx?cid=31620 |title=Zemnieku brīvlaišana |access-date=April 2, 2016 |archive-date=October 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021224026/https://www.letonika.lv/groups/default.aspx?cid=31620 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Emancipation in Courland, 1819====
In 1816 Governorate of Estonia proposed a law for emancipation of serfs which was based on the model of the [[Prussian reforms]]. Czarist authorities ordered Courland Landtag to come up with a similar proposal, which was accepted on August 25, 1817, and proclaimed in Jelgava on August 30, 1818, in presence of Czar Alexander I. Emancipation came into force in 1819 and continued until 1832 as only a selected number of peasants was emancipated each year. Emancipation gave peasants personal freedom, but no land, which they had to lease from land-owners. Peasants were not completely free, as they still could not move to another governorate or city without land-lord's permit.

====Emancipation in Livonia, 1820====
After Emancipation in Estonia and Courland, the situation in Livonia was resolved by the law of March 26, 1819, which was very similar to the Emancipation law of Courland. It was proclaimed on early 1820 and was in force until 1832.

====Emancipation in Latgale, 1861====
As [[Latgale]] was part of the Russian Vitebsk Governorate, serfdom here lasted until 1861, when the [[Emancipation reform of 1861]] was proclaimed in the Russian Empire. Initially peasants kept their land, but had to continue performing socage and rent payments. This was ended by the new law of March 1, 1863.<ref name="Zemnieku brīvlaišana"/>

===Further reforms===
After 1832 peasants were allowed freedom of settlement within the governorate, but only in 1848 Courland peasants were allowed to settle in towns and cities, many of which until then had mostly German and Jewish populations.

The provisional Livonian agrarian law of July 9, 1849 which came int force on November 20, 1850, maintained German nobility's property rights, but allowed peasants to rent or buy the land. By 1856 only 23% of farmers were paying land rent, while the rest were still performing socage. In 1860 this law became permanent and allowed increasing number of farmers to purchase their homes. An 1864 law permitted creation of credit unions, and this improved access to capital for farmers wanting to buy their homes from German land-lords. Just before the start of World War I about 99% of houses in Courland were bought and 90% in Livonia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.letonika.lv/groups/default.aspx?title=M%C4%81ju%20iepirk%C5%A1ana/32379 |title=Māju iepirkšana |access-date=April 2, 2016 |archive-date=May 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507034345/http://www.letonika.lv/groups/default.aspx?title=M%C4%81ju%20iepirk%C5%A1ana/32379 |url-status=live }}</ref> This created a land-owning Latvian farmer class which increased in prosperity and sent its sons to schools of higher education.

In 1870-80s many peasants who were unable or unwilling to purchase their land, used the opportunity to emigrate to Siberia, where land was given for free. By the start of World War I approximately 200,000 Latvian farmers had moved to farming colonies in Siberia.

===Giving of family names===
{{Main|Latvian name}}
While there are records of Latvian last names going as far back as 15th century, almost all of them were inhabitants of large cities and often adopted Germanic family names. Some peasants had family names in the 17th century, but majority had only first name until the emancipation. Most people were identified by the name of their house or manor. Emancipation created the need for identity papers and with this, for family names. Livonian peasants had to choose family names by 1826, in Courland majority names were selected in the campaign that lasted from October 1834 until July 1835. Peasants were prohibited from choosing family names of German nobility and majority chose names related to animals, plants and trees, especially popular were diminutive forms – ''Bērzs'' (birch), ''Bērziņš'' (small birch), ''Kalns'' (hill), ''Kalniņš'' (small hill).

===Religion===
{{Main|Latvian Orthodox Church|History of the Jews in Latvia}}
Latvia was predominantly Lutheran and Catholic, but in 1729 [[Moravian Church|Herrnhuter Brethren]] started their mission in Livonia, with center in [[Valmiera]], their missionaries made significant headway despite the opposition of the German landlords who controlled the Lutheran clergy. The Imperial government proscribed the Moravians 1743–1764. This was the first Christian movement where Latvians become involved voluntarily. Brethren operated independently from the German landlords and their meeting houses were run by Latvians, giving them a chance to create their own communities. Brethren reached the peak of their popularity around 1820, a few years after serfdom was abolished in Livonia Governorate. 30 parishes had almost 100 meeting houses and 20,000 members.

The Imperial government sponsored the Russian Orthodox Church, as part of its program of russification, but Lutheranism remained the dominant religion, except Latgale where Catholicism was dominant. Other Protestant missions had some success including the [[Baptists]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh Day Adventists]].<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age'' (1959) 2:199</ref>

In 1571 the first Jews were invited to settle in Piltene and a Courland Jewish community was formed. After incorporation into Russian Empire more Jews from the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth settled here.

===Latvian National Awakening===
{{Main|Latvian Song and Dance Festival|Lāčplēsis|Latvian mythology}}
[[File:Krišjānis Barons 1910.gads.jpg|thumb|right|Krišjānis Barons, 1910]]
[[File:Latvian Song festival 2008.jpg|thumb|right|Latvian Song Festival, 2008]]
Latvian national awakening could start after the emancipation of serfs and growth in literacy and education rates. Educated Latvians no longer wanted to be Germanized.

In 1822 ''Latviešu avīzes'' the first weekly in Latvian began publishing. In 1832 weekly ''Tas Latviešu Ļaužu Draugs'' began publishing. The first Latvian writers who wrote in Latvian appeared – Ansis Liventāls (1803–77), Jānis Ruģēns (1817–76) and others. In 1839 institute for the elementary school teachers led by [[Jānis Cimze]] opened in [[Valmiera]].

By the middle of 19th century, [[the First Latvian National Awakening]] began among ethnic Latvian intellectuals, a movement that partly reflected similar [[nationalist]] trends elsewhere in Europe. This revival was led by the "[[Young Latvians]]" (in Latvian: ''jaunlatvieši'') from the 1850s to the 1880s. Primarily a literary and cultural movement with significant political implications, the Young Latvians soon came into severe conflict with the [[Baltic Germans]]. During this time the notion of a united Latvian nation was born. Young Latvians also began to research Latvian folklore (See:[[Daina (Latvia)|Latvian dainas]]) and ancient beliefs.

In the 1880s and 1890s the [[russification]] policy was begun by [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] aimed at reducing German autonomy in the [[Baltic governorates|Baltic provinces]]. Introduction of the Russian language in administration, court and education was meant to reduce predominance of German language. At the same time these policies banned Latvian language from public sphere, especially schools, which was a heavy blow to the new Latvian culture.

With increasing poverty in many rural areas and growing urbanization and industrialization (especially of Riga), a loose but broad leftist movement called the "[[New Current]]" arose in the late 1880s. It was led by the future National poet [[Rainis]] and his brother-in-law [[Pēteris Stučka]], editors of the newspaper ''[[Dienas Lapa]]''. This movement was soon influenced by [[Marxism]] and led to the creation of the [[Latvian Social Democratic Labour Party]]. While Rainis remained a social democrat until his death, Stučka become allied with Lenin, established the first [[Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic|Bolshevik state in Latvia]] and died in Moscow.

=== 1905 Revolution ===
{{Main|1905 Russian Revolution}}
Latvia welcomed the 20th century with an explosion of popular discontent during the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 Revolution]]. It started with the shooting of demonstrators in Riga on January 13, progressed to mass strikes in October and armed uprising in December. The revolution was aimed not only against the czarist authorities, but against the hated German barons. For in Latvia most did not feel primarily oppressed by Russia or Russians, but by the [[Baltic Germans]] —roughly seven percent of the population— who had instituted a feudal system with themselves at the top and Latvian-speakers being left mostly poor and landless.<ref name="oDe">{{cite web |title=What became of Latvia's left? |publisher=openDemocracy |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/will-mawhood/what-became-of-latvias-left |author=Will Mawhood |access-date=December 18, 2017 |archive-date=March 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302043857/https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/will-mawhood/what-became-of-latvias-left |url-status=dead }}</ref> As such, it involved not only left wing social democrats and industrial workers, but also more conservative peasants and Latvian intelligentsia since —despite being second class citizens in their own country— Latvia was also a highly literate and industrialised society. Riga was behind only St. Petersburg and Moscow by the number of industrial workers, and at the turn of the century over 90% of Latvians could read.<ref name="oDe"/> In this regard, Latvia was equally primed for radical leftism and nationalism. In all, spearheaded by the [[Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party]] (LSDSP), the governorates making up what is now Latvia were probably the most ungovernable in the whole Russian Empire.<ref name="oDe"/>

Following the shooting of demonstrators in [[St. Petersburg]] on January 9, 1905, a wide-scale general strike began in Riga. On January 13 Russian army troops opened fire on demonstrators in Riga killing 73 and injuring 200 people.

During the summer of 1905 the main revolutionary events moved to the countryside. 470 new parish administrative bodies were elected in 94% of the parishes in Latvia. The Congress of Parish Representatives was held in Riga in November. Mass meetings and demonstrations took place including violent attacks against [[Baltic Germans|Baltic German]] nobles, burning estate buildings and seizure of estate property, including weapons. In total 449 German manor houses were burned.

In the autumn of 1905 armed conflict between the German nobility and the Latvian peasants began in the rural areas of [[Vidzeme]] and Courland. In Courland, the peasants seized or surrounded several towns where they established revolutionary councils. In Vidzeme the fighters controlled the Rūjiena-Pärnu railway line. Altogether, a thousand armed clashes were registered in Latvia in 1905.<ref>{{cite book| last = Bleiere| first = Daina |author2=Ilgvars Butulis |author3=Antonijs Zunda |author4=Aivars Stranga |author5=Inesis Feldmanis| title = History of Latvia : the 20th century.| publisher = [[Jumava (publisher)|Jumava]]| location = [[Riga]]| page = 68| year = 2006| isbn = 9984-38-038-6| oclc = 70240317}}</ref>

Martial law was declared in Courland in August 1905 and in Vidzeme in late November. Special punitive expeditions by Cossack cavalry units and Baltic Germans were dispatched in mid-December to suppress the movement. They executed over 2000 people without trial or investigation and burned 300 houses and public buildings. The executed often were local teachers or peasant activists who had shown disrespect to German nobles, not necessarily hardened revolutionaries. 427 people were court martialed and executed. 2652 people were exiled to [[Siberia]], over 5000 went into exile to Western Europe or the US. In 1906 the revolutionary movement gradually subsided but some local protests and actions of forest guerrillas continued until 1907. They executed some daring raids – freeing their imprisoned comrades from Riga police HQ on January 17, 1906, February 26, [[1906 Helsinki bank robbery]] and the 1910 [[Siege of Sidney Street]] in London.

Among the exiles were activists from the left and right who in just 10 years would fight against each other over the future of Latvia, such as the future Prime Minister [[Kārlis Ulmanis]], National poet [[Jānis Rainis]] and early [[Cheka]] leader [[Yakov Peters|Jēkabs Peterss]].
<gallery widths=180>
Jānis Rainis.jpg|Jānis Rainis, ca. 1900
Brīvības piemineklis-1905 gads.png|Latvian workers against a Cossack, [[Freedom Monument]]
Rīga, 1905. g. revolūcijas piemineklis 2000-10-16 - panoramio.jpg|Monument to the victims of January 13, 1905
Allažu muiža 1905.jpg|The burned Allaži manor house
</gallery>