Editing History of Kuwait (section)

===Independence and early state-building (1946–89)===
{{See also|1983–1988 Kuwait terror attacks}}
Between 1946 and 1982, Kuwait experienced a period of prosperity driven by oil and its liberal cultural atmosphere; this period is called the "golden era".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gonzales |first=Desi |date=November–December 2014 |title=Acquiring Modernity: Kuwait at the 14th International Architecture Exhibition |url=http://www.artpapers.org/feature_articles/feature3_2014_1112.html |journal=[[Art Papers]] |access-date=29 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426171107/http://www.artpapers.org/feature_articles/feature3_2014_1112.html |archive-date=26 April 2017 }}</ref><ref name=venezia>{{cite book |url={{google books|201yBgAAQBAJ|page=7|plainurl=yes}} |title=Acquiring Modernity: Kuwait's Modern Era Between Memory and Forgetting  |date=2014 |page=7 |publisher=National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters |isbn=9789990604238}}</ref><ref name=pavilion>{{cite journal |editor-first=Farah |editor-last=Al-Nakib | url= https://www.academia.edu/8186917 |title=Kuwait's Modernity Between Memory and Forgetting |website=Academia.edu |date=2014 |page=7}}</ref><ref name=farid>{{cite web |author=[[Alia Farid]] |url=http://aliafarid.net/Art-Papers |title=Acquiring Modernity: Kuwait at the 14th International Architecture Exhibition |website=aliafarid.net |date=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221184242/http://aliafarid.net/Art-Papers |archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time. In 1950, a major public-work programme allowed Kuwaitis to enjoy a modern standard of living. By 1952, the country became the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf. This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Egypt, Iran, and India.

In June 1961, Kuwait became independent with the end of the [[Sheikhdom of Kuwait|British protectorate]] and the sheikh [[Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah]] became an Emir. Under the terms of the newly drafted [[Constitution of Kuwait|constitution]], Kuwait held its first [[Kuwaiti parliamentary election, 1963|parliamentary elections in 1963]]. Kuwait was the first [[Arab States of the Persian Gulf|Arab state in the Persian Gulf]] to establish a constitution and parliament.

[[File:HMS Victorious (R38) aerial c1959.jpeg|thumb| [[HMS Victorious (R38)|HMS ''Victorious'']] taking part in [[Operation Vantage]] in July 1961]]
Although Kuwait formally gained independence in 1961, Iraq initially refused to recognize the country's independence by maintaining that Kuwait is part of Iraq, albeit Iraq later briefly backed down following a show of force by Britain and [[Arab League]] support of Kuwait's independence.<ref name=rrgp>{{cite web|last1=James Paul & Martin Spirit|last2=Robinson|first2=Peter|title=Kuwait: The first crisis 1961|work=Riots, Rebellions, Gunboats and Peacekeepers|year=2008|url=http://www.britains-smallwars.com/RRGP/Kuwait.htm|access-date=17 Jan 2010|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402192603/http://www.britains-smallwars.com/RRGP/Kuwait.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=cia>{{cite web|last=Mobley|first=Richard A.|title=Gauging the Iraqi Threat to Kuwait in the 1960s - UK Indications and Warning|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|date=2007–2008|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/fall_winter_2001/article03.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613112002/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/fall_winter_2001/article03.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 June 2007|access-date=17 Jan 2010}}</ref><ref>Helene von Bismarck, "The Kuwait Crisis of 1961 and its Consequences for Great Britain's Persian Gulf Policy", in ''British Scholar'', vol. II, no. 1 (September 2009) pp. 75-96</ref> The short-lived [[Operation Vantage]] crisis evolved in July 1961, as the Iraqi government threatened to invade Kuwait and the invasion was finally averted following plans by the Arab League to form an international Arab force against the potential Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.<ref>Helene von Bismarck, "The Kuwait Crisis of 1961 and its Consequences for Great Britain's Persian Gulf Policy" ''British Scholar'', vol. II, no. 1 (September 2009) pp. 75-96</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1961/jun/20/fromthearchive "Independence for Kuwait: UK protection withdrawn" ''The Guardian'', June 20, 1961]</ref> As a result of Operation Vantage, the Arab League took over the border security of Kuwait and the British had withdrawn their forces by 19 October.<ref name=rrgp /> Iraqi prime minister [[Abd al-Karim Qasim]] was killed in a coup in 1963 but, although Iraq recognised Kuwaiti independence and the military threat was perceived to be reduced, Britain continued to monitor the situation and kept forces available to protect Kuwait until 1971. There had been no Iraqi military action against Kuwait at the time: this was attributed to the political and military situation within Iraq which continued to be unstable.<ref name=cia /> A treaty of friendship between Iraq and Kuwait was signed in 1963 by which Iraq recognised the 1932 border of Kuwait.<ref name="Brown">{{cite web|url= https://www.dur.ac.uk/ibru/publications/view/?id=49|title=The Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute: historical background and the UN decisions of 1992 and 1993|author=Harry Brown|publisher=IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin|date=October 1994|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009014607/https://www.dur.ac.uk/ibru/publications/view/?id=49|access-date= 1 April 2020|archive-date=9 October 2020}}</ref> The [[Kuwait-Iraq 1973 Sanita border skirmish]] evolved on 20 March 1973, when Iraqi army units occupied El-Samitah near the Kuwaiti border, which evoked an international crisis.<ref>[https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=178&dt=2472&dl=1345 US diplomatic cable mentioning the incident]</ref>

On 6 February 1974, [[1974 attack on the Japanese Embassy in Kuwait|Palestinian militants occupied the Japanese embassy in Kuwait]], taking the ambassador and ten others hostage. The militants' motive was to support the [[Japanese Red Army]] members and Palestinian militants who were holding hostages on a Singaporean ferry in what is known as the [[Laju incident|''Laju'' incident]]. Ultimately, the hostages were released, and the guerrillas allowed to fly to [[Aden]]. This was the first time Palestinian guerrillas struck in Kuwait as the Al Sabah ruling family, headed by Sheikh Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, funded the Palestinian resistance movement. Kuwait had been a regular endpoint for Palestinian [[aircraft hijacking|plane hijacking]] in the past and had considered itself safe.

In the 1960s and 1970s, Kuwait was the most developed country in the region.<ref>{{cite news|title=Looking for Origins of Arab Modernism in Kuwait |url=http://hyperallergic.com/191773/looking-for-the-origins-of-arab-modernism-in-kuwait/ |journal=[[Hyperallergic]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Al-Nakib |first=Farah |journal=Built Environment |title=Towards an Urban Alternative for Kuwait: Protests and Public Participation |date=1 March 2014 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=101–117| url= https://www.academia.edu/7913072|doi=10.2148/benv.40.1.101 }}</ref><ref name=index>{{cite web |url=http://gulfartguide.com/essay/cultural-developments-in-kuwait/ |title=Cultural developments in Kuwait |date=March 2013 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129021858/http://gulfartguide.com/essay/cultural-developments-in-kuwait/ |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> Kuwait was first Middle East country to diversify its revenue away from oil exports,<ref name=swf>{{cite journal |first=Sam|last=Chee Kong |url=http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article44637.html |title=What Can Nations Learn from Norway and Kuwait in Managing Sovereign Wealth Funds |journal=Market Oracle |date=1 March 2014}}</ref> establishing the [[Kuwait Investment Authority]] as the world's first [[sovereign wealth fund]]. From the 1970s onward, Kuwait scored highest of all Arab countries on the [[Human Development Index]],<ref name=index/> and [[Kuwait University]], founded in 1966, attracted students from neighboring countries. Kuwait's [[Kuwait#Theatre|theatre industry]] was renowned throughout the Arab world.<ref name=venezia/><ref name=index/>

At the time, Kuwait's press was described as one of the [[Freedom of press|freest in the world]].<ref name=review>{{cite news |first=Farah |last=al-Nakib |date=17 September 2014 |url=http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/19265/understanding-modernity_a-review-of-the-kuwait-pav |title=Understanding Modernity: A Review of the Kuwait Pavilion at the Venice Biennale |work=Jadaliyya |publisher= Arab Studies Institute}}</ref> Kuwait was the pioneer in the literary renaissance in the Arab region.<ref name=pioneer>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabtimesonline.com/NewsDetails/tabid/96/smid/414/ArticleID/191792/reftab/36/t/Kuwait-literary-scene-a-little-complex/Default.aspx |title=Kuwait Literary Scene A Little Complex |quote=A magazine, Al Arabi, was published in 1958 in Kuwait. It was the most popular magazine in the Arab world. It came out it in all the Arabic countries, and about a quarter million copies were published every month. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040817/http://www.arabtimesonline.com/NewsDetails/tabid/96/smid/414/ArticleID/191792/reftab/36/t/Kuwait-literary-scene-a-little-complex/Default.aspx |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> In 1958, ''[[Al Arabi Magazine|Al Arabi]]'' magazine was first published, the magazine went on to become the most popular magazine in the Arab world.<ref name=pioneer/> Additionally, Kuwait became a haven for writers and journalists in the region, and many, like the Iraqi poet [[Ahmed Matar]],<ref>{{cite web |first=Jane |last=Kinninmont |url=http://islamicommentary.org/2013/02/jane-kinninmont-the-case-of-kuwait-debating-free-speech-and-social-media-in-the-gulf/ |title=The Case of Kuwait: Debating Free Speech and Social Media in the Gulf |website=ISLAMiCommentary |date=15 February 2013 |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214055949/https://islamicommentary.org/2013/02/jane-kinninmont-the-case-of-kuwait-debating-free-speech-and-social-media-in-the-gulf/ |archive-date=14 February 2017 }}</ref> moved to Kuwait for its strong [[freedom of expression]] laws, which surpassed those of any other country in the region.<ref name=newsmedia>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4DFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|title=News Media in the Arab World: A Study of 10 Arab and Muslim Countries|page=24|isbn=9781441102393|last1=Gunter|first1=Barrie|last2=Dickinson|first2=Roger|date=2013-06-06|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-first1=Abdulaziz |editor-last1=Sager |editor-first2=Christian |editor-last2=Koch |editor-first3=Hasanain |editor-last3=Tawfiq Ibrahim |url={{google books|FMsuAQAAIAAJ|page=39|plainurl=yes}} |title=Gulf Yearbook 2006-2007 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=Dubai, UAE |date=2008 |page=39 |quote=The Kuwaiti press has always enjoyed a level of freedom unparalleled in any other Arab country. }}</ref>

Kuwaiti society embraced [[Westernization|liberal and Western attitudes]] throughout the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |url={{google books|pN-1AAAAIAAJ|page=61|q=Kuwait+is+a+primary+example+of+a+Muslim+society+which+embraced+liberal+and+Western+attitudes+throughout+the+sixties+and+seventies|plainurl=yes}} |title=Muslim Education Quarterly |publisher=Islamic Academy |date=1990 |volume=8 |page=61 |quote=Kuwait is a primary example of a Muslim society which embraced liberal and Western attitudes throughout the sixties and seventies. }}</ref> Most Kuwaiti women did not wear the [[hijab]] in the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Rubin |editor-first=Barry |url={{google books|wEih57-GWQQC|page=306|plainurl=yes}} |title=Guide to Islamist Movements |volume=1 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, New York |date=2010 |page=306 |isbn=9780765641380}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Deborah L. |last=Wheeler |url={{google books|v6aWc8fM1iEC|page=99|plainurl=yes}}  |title=The Internet in the Middle East: Global Expectations And Local Imaginations |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, New York |page=99 |isbn=9780791465868|year=2006 }}</ref> At Kuwait University, mini-skirts were more common than the hijab.<ref>{{cite news |first=Evan |last=Osnos |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2004/07/11/in-kuwait-conservatism-a-launch-pad-to-success/ |title=In Kuwait, conservatism a launch pad to success |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]] |date=11 July 2004 |quote=In the 1960s and most of the '70s, men and women at Kuwait University dined and danced together, and miniskirts were more common than hijab head coverings, professors and alumni say.}}</ref> 

Oil and the social structure of Kuwait were closely interlinked. According to an authoritative of the region such a structure resembled a form of "new slavery" with a "viciously reactionary character". 90 per cent of the capital generated from oil for investment abroad was concentrated in the hands of eighteen families. The manual as well as a significant section of the managerial workforce was predominantly foreign, mainly Palestinians who were denied Kuwaiti citizenship.<ref>Halliday, Fred 1974. "Arabia Without Sultans" Harmondsworth. pp. 431-434</ref> Major investment was made into developing new architectural projects reflecting a new liberal economy whilst advancing passive cooling and attempts at weaving in local styles and decoration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fabbri |first1=Roberto |last2=Jackson |first2=Iain |date=2021 |title=Modernity Reloaded. Architectural Practice and the Gulf Cities |url=https://hpa.unibo.it/article/view/14356 |journal=Histories of Postwar Architecture |language=en |issue=8 |pages=4–13 |doi=10.6092/issn.2611-0075/14356 |issn=2611-0075}}</ref>

In August 1976, in reaction to heightened assembly opposition to his policies, the emir suspended four articles of the constitution concerned with political and civil rights (freedom of the press and dissolution of the legislature) and the assembly itself.<ref name="loc">{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite encyclopedia|last=Crystal|first=Jill|entry=Kuwait: Constitution|editor-last=Metz|editor-first=Helen Chapin|editor-link=Helen Chapin Metz |entry-url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/frdcstdy.persiangulfstate00metz_0|encyclopedia=Persian Gulf states : country studies|date=1994|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|isbn=0-8444-0793-3|edition=3rd|pages=84–86|oclc=29548413}} }}</ref> In 1980, however, the suspended articles of the constitution were reinstated along with the National Assembly.<ref name="loc" /> In 1982 the government submitted sixteen constitutional amendments that, among other things, would have allowed the emir to declare martial law for an extended period and would have increased both the size of the legislature and the length of terms of office.<ref name="loc" /> In May 1983, the proposals were formally dropped after several months of debate.<ref name="loc" /> Nonetheless, the issue of constitutional revisions continued as a topic of discussion in both the National Assembly and the palace.<ref name="loc" />

In the early 1980s, Kuwait experienced a major [[economic crisis]] after the [[Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash]] and [[1980s oil glut|decrease in oil price]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/02/18/business/kuwait-s-market-bailout.html|title= KUWAIT'S MARKET BAILOUT |date=18 February 1983|work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/12/25/business/kuwait-in-bailout-effort-after-market-collapes.html|title=KUWAIT IN BAILOUT EFFORT AFTER MARKET COLLAPES|date=25 December 1982|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/12/25/business/kuwait-in-bailout-effort-after-market-collapes.html|title=KUWAIT'S BUSTLING STOCK SOUK|date=5 April 1982|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE4DD1439F933A25750C0A965948260&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |title=Kuwait Losses Affect Bahrain |work=The New York Times |date=10 April 1983}}</ref>

During the [[Iran–Iraq War]], Kuwait ardently supported Iraq. As a result, there were [[1983–1988 Kuwait terror attacks|various pro-Iran terror attacks]] across Kuwait, including the 1983 bombings, the attempted assassination of [[Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah|Emir Jaber]] in May 1985, the [[1985 Kuwait City bombings]], and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes. Kuwait's economy and scientific research sector significantly suffered due to the pro-Iran terror attacks.<ref name="s&t">{{cite book|title=Processing and Properties of Advanced Ceramics and Composites|url={{google books|V_uTkJTa4NAC|page=205|plainurl=yes}}|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|volume=240|page=205|isbn=978-1-118-74411-6|editor-first1=Narottam P.|editor-last1=Bansal|editor-first2=Jitendra P.|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first3=Song|editor-last3=Ko|editor-first4=Ricardo|editor-last4=Castro|editor-first5=Gary|editor-last5=Pickrell|editor-first6=Navin Jose|editor-last6=Manjooran|editor-first7=Mani|editor-last7=Nair|editor-first8=Gurpreet|editor-last8=Singh|date=1 July 2013}}</ref>

In 1986, the constitution was again suspended, along with the National Assembly.<ref name="loc" /> As with the previous suspension, popular opposition to this move emerged; indeed, the prodemocracy movement of 1989-90 took its name, the Constitutional Movement, from the demand for a return to constitutional life.<ref name="loc" />

After the Iran–Iraq War ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$65 billion debt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_213.shtml|title=Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990|publisher=Acig.org|access-date=28 June 2010|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006231817/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_213.shtml|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> An economic rivalry between the two countries ensued after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent.<ref name="autogenerated6">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DejCbO1mvCYC&q=Kuwait+slant+drilling&pg=PA156 |title=The Colonial Present: Afghanistan. Palestine. Iraq. |publisher=Wiley |author=Derek Gregory |access-date=28 June 2010|isbn=978-1-57718-090-6|year=2004}}</ref>

The Iraq–Kuwait dispute also involved historical claims to Kuwait's territory. Kuwait had been a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s [[Basra Vilayet|province of Basra]], something that Iraq said made Kuwait rightful Iraqi territory.<ref name="simons343344">{{cite book |first=Geoff |last=Simons |title=Iraq: from Sumer to post-Saddam |year=2003 |edition=3 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-1770-6}}</ref> Kuwait's ruling dynasty, the [[House of Sabah|Al Sabah family]], had concluded a [[protectorate]] agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for Kuwait's foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between Kuwait and Iraq in 1922, making Iraq almost entirely landlocked by limiting its access to the Persian Gulf coastline. Kuwait rejected Iraq's attempts to secure further coastline provisions in the region.<ref name="simons343344" /> Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding its [[OPEC]] quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 per barrel, discipline was required. Kuwait was consistently overproducing; in part to repair infrastructure losses caused by the Iran–Iraq War attacks on Kuwait and to pay for the losses of economic scandals. The result was a slump in the oil price{{snd}}as low as {{convert|10|$/oilbbl|$/m3}}{{snd}}with a resulting loss of $7&nbsp;billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 [[balance of payments]] deficit.<ref name="simons343344" /> Resulting revenues struggled to support the government's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq's damaged infrastructure. Iraq looked for more discipline, with little success.<ref name="simons343344" /> The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare,<ref name="simons343344" /> which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait [[Directional drilling|slant-drilling]] across the border into Iraq's [[Rumaila oil field]].<ref>Cleveland, William L. ''A History of the Modern Middle East. 2nd Ed'' pg. 464</ref> At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war. This move was supported by the US, who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the US' sphere of influence.<ref name="simons343344" />

In 1989, it appeared that Iraq–Kuwait relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq [[Umm Qasr]] was rejected.<ref name="simons343344" /> GCC-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq's large debts, even with the [[demobilization]] of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC's controls mounted.<ref name="simons343344" />

Iraq's relations with its other Arab neighbors were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, who were well-employed during the war, by unemployed Iraqis, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture.<ref name="simons343344" /> The UK also condemned the execution of [[Farzad Bazoft]], a journalist working for the British newspaper ''[[Observer (newspaper)|The Observer]]''. Following Saddam's declaration that "binary chemical weapons" would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding.<ref name="simons343344" /> A UN mission to the [[Israeli-occupied territories]], where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was [[veto]]ed by the US, making Iraq deeply skeptical of US foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the reliance of the US on Middle Eastern energy reserves.<ref name="simons343344" />