Editing Hadrian (section)

===Third Roman–Jewish War (132–136)===
{{Main|Bar Kokhba revolt}}
[[File:Hadrian visit to Judea.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coinage minted to mark Hadrian's visit to Judea. Inscription: HADRIANVS AVG. CO[N]S. III, P. P. / ADVENTVI (arrival) AVG. IVDAEAE – S. C.]]

{{multiple image
| image1 = Bronze statue of Hadrian, found at the Camp of the Sixth Roman Legion in Tel Shalem, 117–138 AD, Israel Museum, Jerusalem (15646103181).jpg
| total_width = 350px
| caption1 = Statue of Hadrian unearthed at Tel Shalem commemorating Roman military victory over [[Simon bar Kokhba]], displayed at the [[Israel Museum]], Jerusalem
| image2 = Statue of Hadrian in Caesarea.jpg
| caption2 = [[Porphyry (geology)|Porphyry]] statue of Hadrian discovered in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], Israel
}}

====Background, causes====
In [[Roman Judaea]], Hadrian visited [[Jerusalem]], which was still in ruins after the [[First Roman–Jewish War]] of 66–73. He may have planned to rebuild Jerusalem as a [[Roman colony]]&nbsp;– as [[Vespasian]] had done with [[Caesarea Maritima]]&nbsp;– with various honorific and fiscal privileges. The non-Roman population would have no obligation to participate in Roman religious rituals but were expected to support the Roman imperial order; this is attested in Caesarea, where some Jews served in the Roman army during both the 66 and 132 rebellions.<ref>Giovanni Battista Bazzana, "The Bar Kokhba Revolt and Hadrian's religious policy", IN Marco Rizzi, ed., '' Hadrian and the Christians''. Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-11-022470-2}}, pp. 89–91</ref> It has been speculated that Hadrian intended to assimilate the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Jewish Temple]] to the traditional Roman civic-religious [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|imperial cult]]; such assimilations had long been commonplace practice in Greece and in other provinces, and on the whole, had been successful.<ref>Bazzana, 98</ref><ref>Cf a project devised earlier by Hellenized Jewish intellectuals such as [[Philo]]: see Rizzi, ''Hadrian and the Christians'', 4</ref> The neighbouring Samaritans had already integrated their religious rites with Hellenistic ones.<ref>Emmanuel Friedheim, "Some notes about the Samaritans and the Rabbinic Class at Crossroads". In Menachem Mor, Friedrich V. Reiterer, eds., '' Samaritans&nbsp;– Past and Present: Current Studies''. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-11-019497-5}}, p. 197.</ref> Strict Jewish [[monotheism]] proved more resistant to imperial cajoling, and then to imperial demands.<ref name=":0">[[Peter Schäfer]] (1981), ''Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand'' (in German), Tübingen, pp. 29–50.</ref>

A tradition based on the ''Historia Augusta'' suggests that the revolt was spurred by Hadrian's abolition of [[History of male circumcision#Male circumcision in the Greco-Roman world|circumcision]] (''[[brit milah]]'');<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Peter Schäfer|Schäfer, Peter]] |title= Judeophobia: Attitudes Toward the Jews in the Ancient World |publisher= Harvard University Press |year= 1998 |pages= 103–105 |quote = [...] Hadrian's ban on circumcision, allegedly imposed sometime between 128 and 132 CE [...]. The only proof for Hadrian's ban on circumcision is the short note in the ''Historia Augusta'': 'At this time also the Jews began war because they were forbidden to mutilate their genitals (''quot vetabantur mutilare genitalia''). [...] The historical credibility of this remark is controversial [...] The earliest evidence for circumcision in Roman legislation is an edict by Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE), Hadrian's successor [...] [I]t is not utterly impossible that Hadrian [...] indeed considered circumcision as a 'barbarous mutilation' and tried to prohibit it. [...] However, this proposal cannot be more than a conjecture, and, of course, it does not solve the questions of when Hadrian issued the decree (before or during/after the Bar Kokhba war) and whether it was directed solely against Jews or also against other peoples. |isbn= 978-0-674-04321-3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8jIhYBwkO80C |access-date= 1 February 2014}}</ref> which as a [[Philhellenism|Hellenist]] he viewed as [[mutilation]].<ref name=Mackay>Mackay, Christopher. ''Ancient Rome a Military and Political History'': 230</ref> The scholar [[Peter Schäfer]] maintains that there is no evidence for this claim, given the notoriously problematical nature of the ''Historia Augusta'' as a source, the "tomfoolery" shown by the writer in the relevant passage, and the fact that contemporary Roman legislation on "genital mutilation" seems to address the general issue of [[castration]] of slaves by their masters.<ref>Peter Schäfer (2003), ''The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome'', Mohr Siebeck, p. 68.</ref><ref>Peter Schäfer (2003), ''The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest''. Routledge, p. 146.</ref><ref>[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]], ''Hadrian'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html#14.2 14.2].</ref> Other issues could have contributed to the outbreak: a heavy-handed, culturally insensitive Roman administration; tensions between the landless poor and incoming Roman colonists privileged with land-grants; and a strong undercurrent of messianism, predicated on [[Jeremiah]]'s prophecy that the Temple would be rebuilt seventy years after its destruction, as the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]] had been after the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian exile]].<ref>Shaye Cohen (2013), ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'', 3rd edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, pp. 25–26, {{ISBN|978-0-664-23904-6}}.</ref>

====Revolt====
A massive anti-Hellenistic and anti-Roman Jewish uprising broke out, led by [[Simon bar Kokhba]].<ref name="Jerome">Chronicle of Jerome, s.v. Hadrian. See: [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm] See also [[Yigael Yadin]] (1971), ''Bar-Kokhba'', New York: Random House, pp. 22, 258.</ref> Given the fragmentary nature of the existing evidence, it is impossible to ascertain an exact date for the beginning of the uprising. It probably began between summer and fall of 132.<ref>Steven T. Katz, ed (1984). ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 11–112, {{ISBN|978-0-521-77248-8}}.</ref>

The Roman governor [[Quintus Tineius Rufus (consul 127)|Tineius (Tynius) Rufus]] asked for an army to crush the resistance; bar Kokhba punished any Jew who refused to join his ranks.<ref name=Jerome/> According to [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], that had to do mostly with Christian converts, who opposed bar Kokhba's messianic claims.<ref>Alexander Zephyr (2013), ''Rabbi Akiva, Bar Kokhba Revolt, and the Ten Tribes of Israel''. Bloomington: iUniverse, {{ISBN|978-1-4917-1256-6}}.</ref>

The Romans were overwhelmed by the organised ferocity of the uprising.<ref name=":0"/> Hadrian called his general [[Sextus Julius Severus]] from [[Roman Britain|Britain]] and brought troops in from as far as the Danube. Roman losses were heavy; an entire legion or its numeric equivalent of around 4,000.<ref>Possibly the [[Legio XXII Deiotariana|XXII Deiotariana]], which according to epigraphy did not outlast Hadrian's reign; see [https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/xxii_deiotariana.html livius.org account] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317020539/http://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/xxii_deiotariana.html |date=17 March 2015 }}; however, Peter Schäfer, following Bowersock, finds no traces in the written sources of the purported annihilation of Legio XXII. A loss of such magnitude would have surely been mentioned (''Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand'', 14).</ref> Hadrian's report on the war to the [[Roman Senate]] omitted the customary salutation, "If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health."<ref>Cassius Dio 69, 14.3 {{cite book |title= Roman History |quote= Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors[...]}}</ref>

The rebellion was quashed by 135. According to [[Cassius Dio]].<ref name=DioRH>''Dio's Roman History'' (trans. Earnest Cary), vol. 8 (books 61–70), London: [[Loeb Classical Library]] 1925, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/diosromanhistory08cassuoft#page/448/mode/2up 449]–[https://archive.org/stream/diosromanhistory08cassuoft#page/450/mode/2up 451].</ref> [[Betar (fortress)|Beitar]], a fortified city {{convert|10|km|mi}} southwest of Jerusalem, fell after a three-and-a-half-year siege.<ref name=DRS11>Daniel R. Schwartz, Zeev Weiss, eds. (2011), ''Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple''. Leiden: Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-21534-4}}, p. 529, footnote 42.</ref>

====Aftermath; persecutions====
[[File:0 Monument honoraire d’Hadrien - L'empereur accueilli par la déesse Rome (2).JPG|thumb|Relief from an honorary monument of Hadrian (detail), showing the emperor being greeted by the [[Roma (mythology)|goddess Roma]] and the [[Genius (mythology)|Genii]] of [[Roman Senate|the Senate]] and the Roman People; marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD, [[Capitoline Museums]], Vatican City]]

Roman war operations in Judea left some 580,000 Jews dead and 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed.<ref name=DioRH/>

An unknown proportion of the population was enslaved. The extent of punitive measures against the Jewish population remains a matter of debate.<ref name=DRS11/>

Hadrian renamed Judea province [[Syria Palaestina]]. He renamed Jerusalem [[Aelia Capitolina]] after himself and [[Jupiter Capitolinus]] and had the city rebuilt in Greek style. According to Epiphanius, Hadrian appointed [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila from Sinope]] in Pontus as "overseer of the work of building the city", since he was related to him by marriage.<ref>Epiphanius, "On Weights and Measures" §14: Hadrian's Journey to the East and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem, Renan Baker, ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'', Bd. 182 (2012), pp. 157–167. Published by: Rudolf Habelt GmbH, available through JSTOR (subscription required, accessed 25 March 2012).</ref> Hadrian is said to have placed the city's main [[Roman Forum|Forum]] at the junction of the main [[Cardo]] and [[Decumanus Maximus]], now the location for the (smaller) [[Muristan]]. After the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Hadrian provided the Samaritans with a temple dedicated to Zeus Hypsistos ("Highest Zeus")<ref>Ken Dowden, ''Zeus''. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, {{ISBN|0-415-30502-0}}, p. 58.</ref> on [[Mount Gerizim]].<ref>Anna Collar (2013), ''Religious Networks in the Roman Empire''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 248–249, {{ISBN|978-1-107-04344-2}}.</ref> The bloody repression of the revolt ended Jewish political independence from the Roman imperial order.<ref>Geza Vermes (2006), ''Who's Who in the Age of Jesus'', entry "Hadrian", Penguin, {{ISBN|0140515658}}.</ref>

====Hadrian's itinerary====
Inscriptions make it clear that in 133, Hadrian took to the field with his armies against the rebels. He then returned to Rome, probably in that year and almost certainly&nbsp;– judging from inscriptions&nbsp;– via [[Illyria|Illyricum]].<ref>Ronald Syme (1988), "Journeys of Hadrian", pp. 164–169.</ref>