Editing Gamal Abdel Nasser (section)

== Pan-Arabism and socialism ==
{{See also|Arab Cold War|Nasserism}}
[[File:Arab Defense Pact Signing 1957.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Five men standing side by side behind a table with documents on it. All the men are wearing suits and ties, with the exception of the man in the middle, who is wearing a traditional robe and headdress. There are three men standing behind them.|The signing of the regional defense pact between Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Jordan, January 1957. At the forefront, from left right: Prime Minister [[Sulayman al-Nabulsi]] of Jordan, King [[Hussein of Jordan]], King [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]], Nasser, Prime Minister [[Sabri al-Asali]] of Syria]]

By 1957, [[pan-Arabism]] had become the dominant ideology in the Arab world, and the average Arab citizen considered Nasser their undisputed leader.<ref name="Dawisha184">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=184}}</ref> Historian Adeed Dawisha credited Nasser's status to his "charisma, bolstered by his perceived victory in the Suez Crisis".<ref name="Dawisha184" /> The Cairo-based [[Voice of the Arabs]] radio station spread Nasser's ideas of united Arab action throughout the Arabic-speaking world, so much so that historian Eugene Rogan wrote, "Nasser conquered the Arab world by radio."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rogan|2011|p=305}}</ref> Lebanese sympathizers of Nasser and the Egyptian embassy in [[Beirut]]—the press center of the Arab world—bought out Lebanese media outlets to further disseminate Nasser's ideals.<ref name="Aburish 135-136" /> Egypt also expanded its policy of secondment, dispatching thousands of high-skilled Egyptian professionals (usually politically active teachers) across the region.<ref name="Tsourapas2016a">{{Harvnb|Tsourapas|2016}}</ref> Nasser also enjoyed the support of Arab nationalist civilian and paramilitary organizations throughout the region. His followers were numerous and well-funded, but lacked any permanent structure and organization. They called themselves "[[Nasserite]]s", despite Nasser's objection to the label (he preferred the term "Arab nationalists").<ref name="Aburish 135-136" />

In January 1957, the US adopted the [[Eisenhower Doctrine]] and pledged to prevent the spread of communism and its perceived agents in the Middle East.<ref name="Aburish127">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=127}}</ref> Although Nasser was an opponent of communism in the region, his promotion of pan-Arabism was viewed as a threat by pro-Western states in the region.<ref name="Aburish127" /><ref name="Yaqub102">{{Harvnb|Yaqub|2004|p=102}}</ref> Eisenhower tried to isolate Nasser and reduce his regional influence by attempting to transform King Saud into a counterweight.<ref name="Aburish127" /><ref name="Yaqub102" /> Also in January, the elected Jordanian prime minister and Nasser supporter<ref name="Dawisha155">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=155}}</ref> [[Sulayman al-Nabulsi]] brought Jordan into a military pact with Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Dawisha181">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=181–182}}</ref>

Relations between Nasser and King [[Hussein of Jordan]] deteriorated in April when Hussein implicated Nasser in two coup attempts against him<ref name="Dawisha181" /><ref name="Dawisha191">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=191}}</ref>—although Nasser's involvement was never established<ref>{{Harvnb|Dann|1989|p=169}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=130}}</ref>—and dissolved al-Nabulsi's cabinet.<ref name="Dawisha181" /><ref name="Dawisha191" /> Nasser subsequently slammed Hussein on Cairo radio as being "a tool of the imperialists".<ref name="Aburish 130-131">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=130–131}}</ref> Relations with King Saud also became antagonistic as the latter began to fear that Nasser's increasing popularity in Saudi Arabia was a genuine threat to the [[House of Saud|royal family]]'s survival.<ref name="Dawisha181" /> Despite opposition from the governments of Jordan, Saudi Arabia, [[Iraq]], and [[Lebanon]], Nasser maintained his prestige among their citizens and those of other Arab countries.<ref name="Aburish 135-136">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=135–136}}</ref>

By the end of 1957, Nasser nationalized all remaining British and French assets in Egypt, including the tobacco, cement, pharmaceutical, and [[phosphate]] industries.<ref name="Aburish138-9">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=138–139}}</ref> When efforts to offer tax incentives and attract outside investments yielded no tangible results, he nationalized more companies and made them a part of his economic development organization.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> He stopped short of total government control: two-thirds of the economy was still in private hands.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> This effort achieved a measure of success, with increased agricultural production and investment in industrialization.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> Nasser initiated the Helwan steelworks, which subsequently became Egypt's largest enterprise, providing the country with product and tens of thousands of jobs.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> Nasser also decided to cooperate with the Soviet Union in the construction of the Aswan Dam to replace the withdrawal of US funds.<ref name="Aburish138-9" />

=== United Arab Republic ===
{{Main|United Arab Republic}}
[[File:Nasser announcing UAR.flac|thumb|right|Nasser's announcement of the United Arab Republic, 23 February 1958]]
[[File:1958-02-03 Egypt, Syria Merge In New Arab Republic.webm|thumb|right|Newsreel clip about Nasser and Quwatli's establishment of United Arab Republic]]

Despite his popularity with the people of the Arab world, by mid-1957 his only regional ally was Syria.<ref name="Dawisha191-2">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=191–192}}</ref> In September, [[Turkish army|Turkish troops]] massed along the Syrian border, giving credence to rumors that the Baghdad Pact countries [[Syrian Crisis of 1957|were attempting to topple Syria's leftist government]].<ref name="Dawisha191-2" /> Nasser sent a contingent force to Syria as a symbolic display of solidarity, further elevating his prestige in the Arab world, and particularly among Syrians.<ref name="Dawisha191-2" />

As political instability grew in Syria, delegations from the country were sent to Nasser demanding immediate unification with Egypt.<ref name="Dawisha193">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=193}}</ref> Nasser initially turned down the request, citing the two countries' incompatible political and economic systems, lack of [[Geographic contiguity|contiguity]], the Syrian military's record of intervention in politics, and the deep factionalism among Syria's political forces.<ref name="Dawisha193" /> However, in January 1958, a second Syrian delegation managed to convince Nasser of an impending communist takeover and a consequent slide to civil strife.<ref name="Dawisha198">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=198}}</ref> Nasser subsequently opted for union, albeit on the condition that it would be a total political merger with him as its president, to which the delegates and Syrian president [[Shukri al-Quwatli]] agreed.<ref name="Dawisha199">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=199–200}}</ref> On 1 February, the [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) was proclaimed and, according to Dawisha, the Arab world reacted in "stunned amazement, which quickly turned into uncontrolled euphoria."<ref name="Dawisha200">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=200}}</ref> Nasser ordered a crackdown against Syrian communists, dismissing many of them from their governmental posts.<ref name="Aburish151">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=150–151}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|1999|pp=44–45}}</ref>

[[File:Presidents Gamal Abdul Nasser and Shukri al-Quwatli receiving Yemeni Crown Prince Mohammad Badr in Damascus in February 1958 congratulating them on formation of the United Arab Republic.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three men sitting next to each other, two of whom are wearing suits and ties, with the man in the middle wearing a traditional robe and headdress.|Nasser seated alongside Crown Prince [[Muhammad al-Badr]] of North Yemen (center) and Shukri al-Quwatli (right), February 1958. North Yemen joined the UAR to form the [[United Arab States]], a loose confederation.]]

On a surprise visit to Damascus to celebrate the union on 24 February, Nasser was welcomed by crowds in the hundreds of thousands.<ref name="Dawisha202-3">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=202–203}}</ref> Crown Prince [[Imam Badr]] of North Yemen was dispatched to Damascus with proposals to include his country in the new republic. Nasser agreed to establish a loose federal union with Yemen—the [[United Arab States]]—in place of total integration.<ref name="Aburish158">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=158}}</ref> While Nasser was in Syria, King Saud planned to have him assassinated on his return flight to Cairo.<ref name="Dawisha190">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=190}}</ref> On 4 March, Nasser addressed the masses in Damascus and waved before them the Saudi check given to Syrian security chief and, unbeknownst to the Saudis, ardent Nasser supporter [[Abdel Hamid Sarraj]] to shoot down Nasser's plane.<ref name="Aburish160-1">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=160–161}}</ref> As a consequence of Saud's plot, he was forced by senior members of the Saudi royal family to informally cede most of his powers to his brother, [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]], a major Nasser opponent who advocated [[pan-Islamism|pan-Islamic unity]] over pan-Arabism.<ref name="Aburish161-2">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=161–162}}</ref>

A day after announcing the attempt on his life, Nasser established a new provisional constitution proclaiming a 600-member National Assembly (400 from Egypt and 200 from Syria) and the dissolution of all political parties.<ref name="Aburish161-2" /> Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice-presidents: Boghdadi and Amer in Egypt, and [[Sabri al-Asali]] and [[Akram al-Hawrani]] in Syria.<ref name="Aburish161-2" /> Nasser then left for Moscow to meet with [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. At the meeting, Khrushchev pressed Nasser to lift the ban on the Communist Party, but Nasser refused, stating it was an internal matter which was not a subject of discussion with outside powers. Khrushchev was reportedly taken aback and denied he had meant to interfere in the UAR's affairs. The matter was settled as both leaders sought to prevent a rift between their two countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=163}}</ref>

With the establishment of the United Arab Republic, the United States under President Eisenhower attempted to build better relations and initiate a rapprochement between the two countries, contrasting with the previously cautious stance of the American government towards Nasser.<ref name="RolandPopp2010" /> In particular, Nasser sought American assistance in his ideological cold war with [[Abd al-Karim Qasim|Abdel Karim Qasim]] in Iraq and his ideology of [[Qasimism]], which conflicted with Nasser's pan-Arab nationalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yolcu |first=Furkan Halit |date=1 October 2020 |title=Building a Model While Debunking Another: The Rivalry of Arab Nationalism between 'Abd al-Karim Qasim and Gamal Abdel Nasser |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13537113.2020.1788696 |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |language=en |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=319–335 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2020.1788696 |s2cid=222110461 |issn=1353-7113 |access-date=15 October 2023}}</ref> However, due to major ideological differences, no significant long-term working relationship developed between Nasser and Eisenhower.<ref name="RolandPopp2010">{{cite journal |last1=Popp |first1=Roland |date=10 September 2010 |title=Accommodating to a working relationship: Arab Nationalism and US Cold War policies in the Middle East, 1958–60 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682741003686107 |journal=[[Cold War History (journal)|Cold War History]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=397–427 |doi=10.1080/14682741003686107 |s2cid=153362433 |access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>

=== Influence on the Arab world ===
{{quote box
| quote = The holy march on which the Arab nation insists, will carry us forward from one victory to another ... the flag of freedom which flies over Baghdad today will fly over Amman and Riyadh. Yes, the flag of freedom which flies over Cairo, Damascus, and Baghdad today will fly over the rest of the Middle East ...
| quoted = 1 | width = 35% | align = right | source = Gamal Abdel Nasser, 19 July in Damascus<ref name="Aburish 174-175" />}}

In Lebanon, clashes between pro-Nasser factions and supporters of staunch Nasser opponent, then-President [[Camille Chamoun]], culminated in [[1958 Lebanon crisis|civil strife]] by May.<ref name="Dawisha208">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=208}}</ref> The former sought to unite with the UAR, while the latter sought Lebanon's continued independence.<ref name="Dawisha208" /> Nasser delegated oversight of the issue to Sarraj, who provided limited aid to Nasser's Lebanese supporters through money, light arms, and officer training<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=164}}</ref>—short of the large-scale support that Chamoun alleged.{{sfn|Dawisha|2009|pp=208–209}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=167}}</ref> Nasser did not covet Lebanon, seeing it as a "special case", but sought to prevent Chamoun from a second presidential term.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=166}}</ref> In Oman, the [[Jebel Akhdar War]] between the rebels in the interior of Oman against the British-backed Sultanate of Oman prompted Nasser to support the rebels in what was considered a war against colonialism between 1954 and 1959.<ref name=JAN>[https://books.google.com/books?id=EOZjCAAAQBAJ&dq=jebel%20akhdar%20war&pg=RA1-PA76 Gregory Fremont Barnes: A History of Counterinsurgency]</ref><ref name=NYTJAN>[https://www.nytimes.com/1957/07/28/archives/oman-dispute-highlights-usbritish-differences-london-moves-to.html?searchResultPosition=1 The New York Times: Oman Dispute Highlights U.S.-British Differences]</ref>

[[File:Negotiations between Chehab and Nasser.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Two men standing side by side in the forefront, wearing overcoats. Behind them are several men in military uniform or suits and ties standing and saluting or making no gestures.|Nasser (right) and Lebanese president [[Fuad Chehab]] (to Nasser's right) at the Syrian–Lebanese border during talks to end the [[1958 Lebanon crisis|crisis in Lebanon]]. [[Akram al-Hawrani]] stands third to Nasser's left, and [[Abdel Hamid Sarraj]] stands to Chehab's right, March 1959.]]

On 14 July 1958, Iraqi army officers Abdel Karim Qasim and [[Abdel Salam Aref]] overthrew the Iraqi monarchy and, the next day, Iraqi prime minister and Nasser's chief Arab antagonist, [[Nuri al-Said]], was killed.<ref name="Dawisha209">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=209}}</ref> The entire Iraqi royal family was killed, and Al-Said's and Iraqi crown prince [['Abd al-Ilah]]'s bodies were mutilated and dragged across Baghdad.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRXDRyFETQkC&pg=PA18-IA169|title=Lion of Jordan|author=Avi Shlaim|access-date=23 January 2018|year= 2008|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-27051-1}}</ref> Nasser recognized the new government and stated that "any attack on Iraq was tantamount to an attack on the UAR".<ref name="Aburish169-170" /> On 15 July, US marines landed in Lebanon, and British special forces in Jordan, upon the request of those countries' governments to prevent them from falling to pro-Nasser forces. Nasser felt that the [[14 July Revolution|revolution in Iraq]] left the road for pan-Arab unity unblocked.<ref name="Aburish169-170">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=169–170}}</ref> On 19 July, for the first time, he declared that he was opting for full Arab union, although he had no plan to merge Iraq with the UAR.<ref name="Aburish 174-175">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=174–175}}</ref> While most members of the [[Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council]] (RCC) favored Iraqi-UAR unity,<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=172}}</ref> Qasim sought to keep Iraq independent and resented Nasser's large popular base in the country.<ref name="Dawisha209" />

In the fall of 1958, Nasser formed a tripartite committee consisting of Zakaria Mohieddin, al-Hawrani, and [[Salah al-Din Bitar|Salah Bitar]] to oversee developments in Syria.<ref name="Aburish176-78" /> By moving the latter two, who were Ba'athists, to Cairo, he neutralized important political figures who had their own ideas about how Syria should be run.<ref name="Aburish176-78" /> He put Syria under Sarraj, who effectively reduced the province to a [[police state]] by imprisoning and exiling landholders who objected to the introduction of Egyptian agricultural reform in Syria, as well as communists.<ref name="Aburish176-78" /> Following the Lebanese election of [[Fuad Chehab]] in September 1958, relations between Lebanon and the UAR improved considerably.<ref name="Salam102">{{Harvnb|Salam|2004|p=102}}</ref> On 25 March 1959, Chehab and Nasser met at the Lebanese–Syrian border and compromised on an end to the Lebanese crisis.<ref name="Salam102" />

[[File:Nasser addressing Damascus, 1960.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The back of a man waving to the throng below|Nasser waving to crowds in [[Damascus]], Syria, October 1960]]

Relations between Nasser and Qasim grew increasingly bitter on 9 March,<ref name="Aburish181-83">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=181–183}}</ref> after Qasim's forces suppressed a [[1959 Mosul uprising|rebellion]] in [[Mosul]], launched a day earlier by a [[Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf|pro-Nasser Iraqi RCC officer]] backed by UAR authorities.<ref name="Dawisha216">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=216}}</ref> Nasser had considered dispatching troops to aid his Iraqi sympathizers, but decided against it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=179–180}}</ref> He clamped down on Egyptian communist activity due to the key backing Iraqi communists provided Qasim. Several influential communists were arrested, including Nasser's old comrade [[Khaled Mohieddin]], who had been allowed to re-enter Egypt in 1956.<ref name="Aburish181-83" />

By December, the political situation in Syria was faltering and Nasser responded by appointing Amer as governor-general alongside Sarraj. Syria's leaders opposed the appointment and many resigned from their government posts. Nasser later met with the opposition leaders and in a heated moment, exclaimed that he was the elected president of the UAR and those who did not accept his authority could "walk away".<ref name="Aburish176-78">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=176–178}}</ref>

=== Collapse of the union and aftermath ===
Opposition to the union mounted among some of Syria's key elements,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=227}}</ref> namely the [[socioeconomic]], political, and military elites.<ref name="Dawisha231">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=231}}</ref> In response to Syria's worsening economy, which Nasser attributed to its control by the [[bourgeoisie]], in July 1961, Nasser decreed socialist measures that nationalized wide-ranging sectors of the Syrian economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=229}}</ref> He also dismissed Sarraj in September to curb the growing political crisis. Aburish states that Nasser was not fully capable of addressing Syrian problems because they were "foreign to him".<ref name="Aburish189-191">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=189–191}}</ref> In Egypt, the economic situation was more positive, with a GNP growth of 4.5 percent and a rapid growth of industry.<ref name="Aburish189-191" /> In 1960, Nasser nationalized the Egyptian press, which had already been cooperating with his government, in order to steer coverage towards the country's socioeconomic issues and galvanize public support for his socialist measures.<ref name="AtiyehOweiss331–2" />

On 28 September 1961, secessionist army units launched a coup in Damascus, declaring Syria's secession from the UAR.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=230}}</ref> In response, pro-union army units in northern Syria revolted and pro-Nasser protests occurred in major Syrian cities.<ref name="Dawisha231" /> Nasser sent [[Sa'ka Forces|Egyptian Special Forces]] to [[Latakia]] to bolster his allies, but withdrew them two days later, citing a refusal to allow inter-Arab fighting.<ref name="Aburish204-5">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=204–205}}</ref> Addressing the UAR's breakup on 5 October,<ref name="Podeh157">{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=157}}</ref> Nasser accepted personal responsibility<ref name="Aburish204-5" /> and declared that Egypt would recognize an elected Syrian government.<ref name="Podeh157" /> He privately blamed interference by hostile Arab governments.<ref name="Aburish204-5" /> According to Heikal, Nasser suffered something resembling a nervous breakdown after the dissolution of the union; he began to smoke more heavily and his health began to deteriorate.<ref name="Aburish204-5" />

=== Revival on regional stage ===
{{See also|North Yemen Civil War}}
[[File:Nasser, Arif and Ben Bella.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Three important men walking alongside each other.|Nasser (center) receiving Algerian president [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] (right) and Iraqi president [[Abdel Salam Aref]] (left) for the [[1964 Arab League summit (Alexandria)|Arab League summit]] in Alexandria, September 1964. Ben Bella and Aref were close allies of Nasser.]]

Nasser's regional position changed unexpectedly when Yemeni officers led by Nasser supporter [[Abdullah al-Sallal]] overthrew Imam Badr of North Yemen on 27 September 1962.<ref name="Aburish207" /> Al-Badr and his tribal partisans began receiving increasing support from Saudi Arabia to help reinstate the kingdom, while Nasser subsequently accepted a request by Sallal to militarily aid the new government on 30 September.<ref name="Dawisha235">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=235}}</ref> Consequently, Egypt became increasingly embroiled in the drawn-out [[North Yemen Civil War|civil war]], with 60,000 Egyptian soldiers deployed in North Yemen in March 1966. In August 1967, in order to make up for Egyptian losses during the Six-Day War, Nasser recalled 15,000 troops from North Yemen. As part of the [[Khartoum Resolution]] at the [[1967 Arab League summit]] in the same month, Egypt announced that it was ready to withdraw all its soldiers from North Yemen and it did so by the end of 1967.<ref name="Dawisha235" /> 26,000 Egyptian soldiers were killed during the intervention.{{sfn|Pollack|2002|pp=55–56}} Most of Nasser's old colleagues had questioned the wisdom of continuing the war, but Amer reassured Nasser of their coming victory.<ref name="Aburish209">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=209–211}}</ref> Nasser later remarked in 1968 that intervention in Yemen was a "miscalculation".<ref name="Dawisha235" />

In July 1962, Algeria became [[Algerian independence war|independent]] of France.<ref name="Aburish209" /> As a staunch political and financial supporter of the Algerian independence movement, Nasser considered the country's independence to be a personal victory.<ref name="Aburish209" /> Amid these developments, a [[Free Princes|pro-Nasser clique]] in the Saudi royal family led by Prince [[Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz|Talal]] defected to Egypt, along with the Jordanian chief of staff, in early 1963.<ref name="Dawisha237">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=237}}</ref>

On 8 February 1963, a [[Ramadan Revolution|military coup]] in Iraq led by a Ba'athist–Nasserist alliance toppled Qasim, who was subsequently shot dead. [[Abdul Salam Arif|Abdel Salam Aref]], a Nasserist, was chosen to be the new president.<ref name="Aburish209" /> A similar alliance [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|toppled]] the Syrian government on 8 March.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|pp=76–77}}</ref> On 14 March, the new Iraqi and Syrian governments sent Nasser delegations to push for a new Arab union.<ref name="Aburish 215-217">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=215–217}}</ref> At the meeting, Nasser lambasted the Ba'athists for "facilitating" Syria's split from the UAR,<ref name="Dawisha239">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=239}}</ref> and asserted that he was the "leader of the Arabs".<ref name="Aburish 215-217" /> A transitional unity agreement stipulating a federal system<ref name="Aburish 215-217" /> was signed by the parties on 17 April and the new union was set to be established in May 1965.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|p=81}}</ref> However, the agreement fell apart weeks later when Syria's Ba'athists [[1963 Syrian coup d'état#Purges and failed coup of 18 July|purged]] Nasser's supporters from the officers corps. A failed counter-coup by a [[Jassem Alwan|Nasserist colonel]] followed, after which Nasser condemned the Ba'athists as "fascists".<ref>{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|pp=82–83}}</ref>
[[File:Nasser and Sallal in Sanaa.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Several men in different clothing standing before a crowd of people.|Nasser before Yemeni crowds on his arrival to [[Sana'a]], April 1964. In front of Nasser and giving a salute is Yemeni President [[Abdullah al-Sallal]] ]]

In January 1964, Nasser called for an [[1964 Arab League summit (Cairo)|Arab League summit]] in Cairo to establish a unified Arab response against Israel's plans to divert the [[Jordan River]]'s waters for economic purposes, which Syria and Jordan deemed an act of war.<ref name="Dawisha243">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=243–244}}</ref> Nasser blamed Arab divisions for what he deemed "the disastrous situation".<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /> He discouraged Syria and Palestinian guerrillas from provoking the Israelis, conceding that he had no plans for war with Israel.<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /> During the summit, Nasser developed cordial relations with King Hussein, and ties were mended with the rulers of Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Morocco.<ref name="Dawisha243" /> In May, Nasser moved to formally share his leadership position over the Palestine issue<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /> by initiating the creation of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO).<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /><ref name="Cubert52">{{Harvnb|Cubert|1997|p=52}}</ref> In practice, Nasser used the PLO to wield control over the Palestinian fedayeen.<ref name="Cubert52" /> Its head was to be [[Ahmad Shukeiri]], Nasser's personal nominee.<ref name="Aburish 222-223">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=222–223}}</ref>

After years of foreign policy coordination and developing ties, Nasser, President [[Sukarno]] of [[Indonesia]], President [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]] of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] of [[India]] founded the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) in 1961.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mehrotra|1990|p=57}}</ref> Its declared purpose was to solidify international non-alignment and promote world peace amid the Cold War, end colonization, and increase economic cooperation among developing countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mehrotra|1990|p=58}}</ref> In 1964, Nasser was made president of the NAM and held the second conference of the organization in Cairo.<ref name="Aburish234">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=234}}</ref>

Nasser played a significant part in the strengthening of African solidarity in the late 1950s and early 1960s, although his continental leadership role had increasingly passed to Algeria since 1962.<ref name="AdiSherwood140-1">{{Harvnb|Adi|Sherwood|2003|pp=140–141}}</ref> During this period, Nasser made Egypt a refuge for anti-colonial leaders from several African countries and allowed the broadcast of anti-colonial propaganda from Cairo.<ref name="AdiSherwood140-1" /> Beginning in 1958, Nasser had a key role in the discussions among African leaders that led to the establishment of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU) in 1963.<ref name="AdiSherwood140-1" />