Editing Forest (section)

== Societal significance ==
{{Main|Forestry|Logging|Deforestation}}
[[File:Redwood M D Vaden.jpg|thumb|Redwood tree in northern California redwood forest, where many [[Sequoia sempervirens|redwood]] trees are managed for preservation and longevity, rather than being harvested for wood production]]
[[File:Verbrannter Wald, Thasos.jpg|thumb|[[Wildfire|Burned forest]] on [[Kastro, Thasos|Thasos]]]]

=== Ecosystem services ===
Forests provide a diversity of [[ecosystem services]] including:
* Converting [[carbon dioxide]] into [[oxygen]] and biomass. A full-grown tree produces about {{convert|100|kg}} of net oxygen per year.<ref>{{cite web|author=Luis Villazon|url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-many-trees-does-it-take-to-produce-oxygen-for-one-person/|title=How many trees does it take to produce oxygen for one person?|date=16 September 2015 |publisher=Science Focus|access-date=12 August 2019}}</ref>
* Acting as a [[carbon sink]]. Therefore, they are necessary to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]].<ref name=IPCC>{{cite book |title=Global Warming of 1.5&nbsp;°C – an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5&nbsp;°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty Summary for Policymakers |url=http://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_spm_final.pdf |date=6 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003130/http://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_spm_final.pdf |archive-date=18 October 2018 |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |page=22 |access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
* Aiding in regulating [[climate]]. For example, research from 2017 shows that forests induce rainfall. If the forest is cut, it can lead to [[drought]],<ref name="Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon">{{cite journal |last1=S. Write |first1=Jonathon |last2=Fu |first2=Rong |last3=R. Worden |first3=John |last4=Chakraborty |first4=Sudip |last5=E. Clinton |first5=Nicholas |last6=Risi |first6=Camille |last7=Sun |first7=Ying |author7-link=Ying Sun (environmental scientist)|last8=Yin |first8=Lei |title=Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |date=20 July 2017 |issue=Forests, Rainfall |pages=8481–86 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1621516114 |pmid=28729375 |pmc=5558997 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.8481W |doi-access=free }}</ref> and in the tropics to [[occupational heat stress]] of outdoor workers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Quaglia |first=Sofia |title=Deforestation making outdoor work unsafe for millions, says study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/17/deforestation-making-outdoor-work-unsafe-for-millions-says-study |date=17 December 2021 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref>
* Purifying [[water]].
* Mitigating natural hazards such as [[flood]]s.
* Serving as a genetic reserve.
* Serving as a source of [[lumber]] and as [[recreation]]al areas.
* Serving as a source of woodlands and trees for millions of people dependent almost entirely on forests for subsistence for their essential fuelwood, food, and fodder needs.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en|title=The State of the World's Forests 2020 – Forests, biodiversity and people|publisher=FAO & UNEP|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-132419-6|location=Rome|doi=10.4060/ca8642en|s2cid=241858489}}</ref>

The main ecosystem services can be summarized in the next table:<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary Forests: Boreal, Temperate, Tropical |url=https://www.woodwellclimate.org/primary-forests-boreal-temperate-tropical/ |website=Woodwell Climate Research Center |date=17 December 2020 |publisher=Woodwell Climate Research Center, INTACT, Griffits University, GEOS institute, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Australian Rainforest Conservation Society |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Main ecosystem services of the 3 main types of forest
|-
! Type of forest !! Carbon stored !! Biodiversity !! Other
|-
| Primary [[Boreal forests|Boreal Forests]] || 1,042 billion tonnes of carbon, more than currently found in the atmosphere, 2 times more than all [[Greenhouse gas emissions|human caused emissions]] since the year 1870. || Biodiversity services given by Canada forest alone are estimated as 703 billion dollars per year. Important for almost half of the [[bird]]s in North America. || Contain 60% of world [[Fresh water|surface freshwater]].
|-
| Primary [[Temperate forest|Temperate Forests]] || 119 billion tonnes (like all CO2 emitted by humans in 2005–2017) || [[Old-growth forest|Old growth forest]] has very high biodiversity. Some species link [[terrestrial ecosystem]]s to [[marine ecosystem|marine]]. || Some trees can live 1,000 years providing many services to humans. Help to protect people from [[flood]]s and [[drought]]s.
|-
| Primary [[Tropical forest|Tropical Forests]] || 471 billion tonnes (more than all CO2 emissions from fossil fuel industry from the year 1750) || Contain about two thirds of all [[species]] of terrestrial [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s. || Creates clouds, [[rainfall]].
|}

Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also incur costs to humans.<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002">{{cite conference|first1=R|last1=Nasi|first2=S|last2=Wunder|first3=JJ|last3=Campos A|title=Forest ecosystem services: can they pay our way out of deforestation?|book-title=UNFF II|location=Costa Rica|date=11 March 2002|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204162356/http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|first1=Lucy|last1=Emerton|year=1999|title=Mount Kenya: The Economics of Community Conservation|series=Evaluating Eden Series|issue=Discussion Paper No.4|type=Community Conservation research Working Paper|publisher=University of Manchester Institute of Development Policy and Management|url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204162356/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> Forests may impose an economic burden,<ref>{{cite report |last1=Lette |first1=Henk |last2=de Boo |first2=Henneleen |title=Economic Valuation of Forests and Nature A support tool for effective decision-making |url=http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/118103 |year=2002 |series=Theme Studies Series 6 Forests |location=Ede, The Netherlands |publisher=Forestry and Biodiversity Support Group, International Agricultural Centre (IAC), Wageningen National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (EC-LNV) |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Joshua T.|editor-last=Bishop|year=1999|title=Valuing Forests A Review of Methods and Applications in Developing Countries|publisher=Environmental Economics Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)|location=London|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123100829/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> diminish the enjoyment of natural areas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=Emma F.|last2=Bond|first2=William J.|title=Will woody plant encroachment impact the visitor experience and economy of conservation areas?|journal=Koedoe|year=2013|volume=55|number=1|issn=0075-6458|doi=10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1106|doi-access=free|hdl=11427/24844|hdl-access=free}}</ref> reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land<ref>{{cite journal|first1=R.J.|last1=Scholes|first2=S.R.|last2=Archer|year=1997|title=Tree-Grass Interactions in Savannas|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=28|issue=1 |pages=517–44|url=http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.517|bibcode=1997AnRES..28..517S |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204185831/http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> and cultivated land,<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Pimentel|first2=Marcia H.|last2=Pimentel|year=2007|title=Food, Energy, and Society|publisher=CRC Press}}</ref> reduce biodiversity,<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Zakary|last1=Ratajczak|first2=Jesse B.|last2=Nippert|first3=Scott L.|last3=Collins|year=2012|title=Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas|journal=Ecology|volume=93|issue=4|pages=697–703|pmid=22690619|url=http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf%27s/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|doi=10.1890/11-1199.1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307025203/http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf's/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2015|doi-access=free|bibcode=2012Ecol...93..697R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Catherine L.|last1=Parr|first2=Emma F.|last2=Gray|first3=William J.|last3=Bond|year=2012|title=Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=18|issue=5|pages=493–503|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259397524|doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00882.x|s2cid=84089636|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131191537/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emma_Gray5/publication/259397524_Cascading_biodiversity_and_functional_consequences_of_a_global_change-induced_biome_switch/links/0046352b6eb15ccff5000000.pdf|archive-date=31 January 2017|doi-access=free|bibcode=2012DivDi..18..493P }}</ref> reduce available water for humans and wildlife,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Wilcox|first1=B.P.|last2=Kreuter|first2=U.P.|year=2003|title=Woody plant: streamflow interactions as a basis for land management decisions in drylands|conference=Proceedings VIIth International Rangelands Congress|pages=989–96}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Scott|first=D.F.|year=1999|title=Managing riparian vegetation to sustain streamflow: results of paired catchment experiments in South Africa|journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1149–51|url=http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|doi=10.1139/x99-042|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205151715/http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|archive-date=5 December 2014}}</ref> harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife,<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=A|last2=Elliston|first2=L|last3=Kokic|first3=P|last4=Lawson|first4=K|year=2005|title=Native vegetation: cost of preservation in Australia|journal=Australian Commodities|volume=12|issue=3|pages=543–48|url=http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201164407/http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101|archive-date=1 February 2018}}</ref> and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | title = Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans | first1 = B.A. | last1 = Wilcox | first2 = B. | last2 = Ellis | publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | access-date = 16 November 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129213641/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | archive-date = 29 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Small rodents in the forest ecosystem as infectious disease reservoirs|journal=Acta Med Croatica|year=2003|volume=57|issue=5|pages=421–26|pmid=15011471|first=J|last=Margaletic|language=hr}}</ref>

An important consideration regarding carbon sequestration is that forests can turn from a carbon sink to a carbon source if plant diversity, density or forest area decreases, as has been observed in different tropical forests<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baccini |first1=A. |last2=Walker |first2=W. |last3=Carvalho |first3=L. |last4=Farina |first4=M. |last5=Sulla-Menashe |first5=D. |last6=Houghton |first6=R. A. |date=2017-10-13 |title=Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aam5962 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=358 |issue=6360 |pages=230–234 |doi=10.1126/science.aam5962 |pmid=28971966 |bibcode=2017Sci...358..230B |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spawn |first1=Seth A. |last2=Sullivan |first2=Clare C. |last3=Lark |first3=Tyler J. |last4=Gibbs |first4=Holly K. |date=2020-04-06 |title=Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010 |journal=Scientific Data |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=112 |doi=10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4 |pmid=32249772 |issn=2052-4463|pmc=7136222 |bibcode=2020NatSD...7..112S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-28 |title=Tropical forests have flipped from sponges to sources of carbon dioxide |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/tropical-forests-have-flipped-sponges-sources-carbon-dioxide |access-date=2024-01-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Harvey |first1=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=2020-03-04 |title=Tropical forests losing their ability to absorb carbon, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/04/tropical-forests-losing-their-ability-to-absorb-carbon-study-finds |access-date=2024-01-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> An assessment of European forests found early signs of carbon sink saturation, after decades of increasing strength.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nabuurs |first1=Gert-Jan |last2=Lindner |first2=Marcus |last3=Verkerk |first3=Pieter J. |last4=Gunia |first4=Katja |last5=Deda |first5=Paola |last6=Michalak |first6=Roman |last7=Grassi |first7=Giacomo |date=September 2013 |title=First signs of carbon sink saturation in European forest biomass |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1853 |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=792–796 |doi=10.1038/nclimate1853 |bibcode=2013NatCC...3..792N |issn=1758-6798}}</ref> The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)]] concluded that a combination of measures aimed at increasing forest carbon stocks, andsustainable timber offtake will generate the largest carbon sequestration benefit.<ref>{{Citation |title=Forestry |date=2007 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2007-mitigation-of-climate-change/forestry/252A8A6E2DAE291C4769FD9385DA26C4 |work=Climate Change 2007 - Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC |pages=541–584 |editor-last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |access-date=2024-01-05 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511546013.013 |isbn=978-1-107-79970-7}}</ref>

=== Forest-dependent people ===
The term forest-dependent people is used to describe any of a wide variety of livelihoods that are dependent on access to forests, products harvested from forests, or ecosystem services provided by forests, including those of Indigenous peoples dependent on forests.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Peter |last2=Miller |first2=Daniel C. |last3=Byenkya |first3=Mugabi Augustine Ateenyi |last4=Agrawal |first4=Arun |title=Who are forest-dependent people? A taxo nomy to aid livelihood and land use decision-making in forested regions |journal=Land Use Policy |date=2016 |volume=57 |pages=388–395|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.032 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016LUPol..57..388N }}</ref> In [[India]], approximately 22 percent of the population belongs to forest-dependent communities, which live in close proximity to forests and practice [[agroforestry]] as a principal part of their livelihood.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prateek |first1=Gautam |last2=Punia |first2=Sumendera |title=India's forest-dependent communities will benefit from policies recognising their integrated agri-forestry livelihood |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/forests/india-s-forest-dependent-communities-will-benefit-from-policies-recognising-their-integrated-agri-forestry-livelihood-86929 |website=DownToEarth|date=4 January 2023 }}</ref> People of [[Ghana]] who rely on [[timber]] and [[bushmeat]] harvested from forests and Indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest are also examples of forest-dependent people.<ref name="auto1"/> Though forest-dependence by more common definitions is statistically associated with poverty and [[rural]] livelihoods, elements of forest-dependence exist in communities with a wide range of characteristics. Generally, richer households derive more cash value from forest resources, whereas among poorer households, forest resources are more important for home consumption and increase community resilience.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/forests/201611/understanding-human-dependence-forests-overview-iucn%E2%80%99s-efforts-and-findings-and-their-implications|title=Understanding human dependence on forests: An overview of IUCN's efforts and findings, and their implications|date=2 November 2016|website=IUCN}}</ref>

=== Indigenous peoples ===
Forests are fundamental to the culture and livelihood of indigenous people groups that live in and depend on forests,<ref>{{cite web |title=Interview: Deforestation Threatens Indonesia's Indigenous Peoples |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/22/interview-deforestation-threatens-indonesias-indigenous-peoples |website=Human Rights Watch|date=22 September 2019 }}</ref> many of which have been removed from and denied access to the lands on which they lived as part of global [[colonialism]]. Indigenous lands contain 36% or more of intact forest worldwide, host more biodiversity, and experience less deforestation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cannon |first1=John |title=Indigenous lands hold 36% or more of remaining intact forest landscapes |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/01/indigenous-lands-hold-36-or-more-of-remaining-intact-forest-landscapes/ |website=Mongabay|date=16 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Indigenous peoples by far the best guardians of forests – UN report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/25/indigenous-peoples-by-far-the-best-guardians-of-forests-un-report |newspaper=The Guardian|date=25 March 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chemnick |first1=Jean |title=Amazon Deforestation Falls Where Land Is under Indigenous Control |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/amazon-deforestation-falls-where-land-is-under-indigenous-control/ |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Indigenous activists have argued that degradation of forests and indigenous peoples' marginalization and land dispossession are interconnected.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Peoples Excluded from Political Power, Ejected from Lands, Faced Corporations Bent on Destroying Life-Giving Forests, Permanent Forum Told |url=https://press.un.org/en/2010/hr5021.doc.htm |website=United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doolittle |first1=Amy |title=The Politics of Indigeneity: Indigenous Strategies for Inclusion in Climate Change Negotiations |journal=Conservation & Society |date=2010 |volume=8 |issue=4|page=256 |doi=10.4103/0972-4923.78142 |hdl=10535/8315 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other concerns among indigenous peoples include lack of Indigenous involvement in forest management and loss of knowledge related for the forest ecosystem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carson |first1=Savanna L. |last2=Kentatchime |first2=Fabrice |last3=Nana |first3=Eric Djomo |last4=Njabo |first4=Kevin Y. |last5=Cole |first5=Brian L. |last6=Godwin |first6=Hilary A. |title=Indigenous Peoples' Concerns About Loss of Forest Knowledge: Implications for Forest Management |journal=Conservation & Society |date=2018 |volume=16 |issue=4}}</ref> Since 2002, the amount of land that is legally owned by or designated for indigenous peoples has broadly increased, but land acquisition in lower-income countries by multinational corporations, often with little or no consultation of indigenous peoples, has also increased.<ref>{{cite tech report | last=Savedoff | first=William | title=Competing or Complementary Strategies?: Protecting Indigenous Rights and Paying to Conserve Forests | year=2018 | jstor=resrep29743.4 | page=4–10}}</ref> Research in the Amazon rainforest suggests that indigenous methods of agroforestry form reservoirs of biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanabria |first1=Catalina |last2=Achury |first2=Rafael |title=Amazonian indigenous territories as reservoirs of biodiversity - Territorios indígenas amazónicos como reservorio de biodiversidad: The army ants of Santa Sofia (Amazonas – Colombia) |journal=Caldasia |date=2022 |volume=44 |issue=2|doi=10.15446/caldasia.v44n2.92330 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In the U.S. state of [[Wisconsin]], forests managed by indigenous people have more plant diversity, fewer invasive species, higher tree regeneration rates, and higher volume of trees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waller |first1=Donald M. |last2=Reo |first2=Nicholas J. |title=First stewards: ecological outcomes of forest and wildlife stewardship by indigenous peoples of Wisconsin, USA |journal=Ecology and Society |date=2018 |volume=23 |issue=1|doi=10.5751/ES-09865-230145 |doi-access=free }}</ref>