Editing Ethnography (section)

==Forms==

===Autoethnography===
{{Main|Autoethnography}}
Autoethnography is a form of ethnographic research in which a researcher connects personal experiences to wider cultural, political, and social meanings and understandings.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Levy |first=Patricia |title=Method Meets Art: Arts-Based Research Practice |publisher=The Guilford Ford |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4625-3897-3 |edition=3rd |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Maréchal |first=Garance |title=Encyclopedia of case study research. Volume 2 |date=2010 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4522-6572-8 |editor-last=Mills |editor-first=Albert J. |location=Los Angeles [Calif.] |pages=43–45 |chapter=Autoethnography |oclc=811140520 |editor-last2=Durepos |editor-first2=Gabrielle |editor-last3=Wiebe |editor-first3=Elden}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Carolyn |title=The ethnographic I: a methodological novel about autoethnography |date=2004 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=0-7591-0050-0 |location=Walnut Creek, CA |oclc=52845847}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Tony E. |title=Autoethnography |last2=Jones |first2=Stacy Holman |last3=Ellis |first3=Carolyn |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-997210-4 |location=New York, New York |language=English |oclc=891397276}}</ref>  According to Adams et al., autoethnography

# uses a researcher's personal experience to describe and critique cultural beliefs, practices, and experiences;
# acknowledges and values a researcher's relationships with others
# uses deep and careful self-reflection—typically referred to as "reflexivity"—to name and interrogate the intersections between self and society, the particular and the general, the personal and the political
# shows people in the process of figuring out what to do, how to live, and the meaning of their struggles
# balances intellectual and methodological rigor, emotion, and creativity
# strives for social justice and to make life better.<ref name=":24">{{Citation |last=Poulos |first=Christopher N. |title=Conceptual foundations of autoethnography. |date=2021 |work=Essentials of autoethnography. |pages=3–17 |place=Washington |publisher=American Psychological Association |language=en |doi=10.1037/0000222-001 |isbn=978-1-4338-3454-7 |s2cid=234961975}}</ref>

[[Arthur P. Bochner|Bochner]] and [[Carolyn Ellis|Ellis]] have also defined autoethnography as "an autobiographical genre of writing and research that displays multiple layers of consciousness, connecting the personal to the cultural."<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last1=Bochner |first1=Arthur |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315545417/evocative-autoethnography-arthur-bochner-carolyn-ellis |title=Evocative Autoethnography: Writing Lives and Telling Stories |last2=Ellis |first2=Carolyn |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |location=New York, New York |language=English |doi=10.4324/9781315545417|isbn=978-1-134-81587-6 }}</ref>{{Rp|page=65}} They further indicate that autoethnography is typically written in first-person and can "appear in a variety of forms," such as "short stories, poetry, fiction, novels, photographic essays, personal essays, journals, fragmented and layered writing, and social science prose."<ref name=":7" />{{Rp|page=65}}

===Genealogical method===
The '''genealogical method''' investigates links of [[kinship]] determined by [[marriage]] and [[Cultural heritage|descent]]. The method owes its origin from the book of British ethnographer [[W. H. R. Rivers]] titled "Kinship and Social Organisation" in 1911.<ref>''Windows on Humanity'' by Conrad Phillip Kottak. Chapter 2, page 38.</ref>  [[Genealogy]] or kinship commonly plays a crucial role in the structure of non-industrial societies, determining both social relations and group relationship to the past.  Marriage, for example, is frequently pivotal in determining military alliances between [[village]]s, [[clan]]s or [[ethnic groups]].

In the field of [[epistemology]] the term is used to characterize the [[philosophy|philosophical]] method employed by such writers as [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] and [[Michel Foucault]].

===Digital ethnography===

Digital ethnography is also seen as virtual ethnography. This type of ethnography is not so typical as ethnography recorded by pen and pencil. Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies. Traditional ethnography may use videos or images, but digital ethnography goes more in-depth. For example, digital ethnographers would use social media platforms such as Twitter or blogs so that people's interactions and behaviors can be studied. Modern developments in computing power and AI have enabled higher efficiencies in ethnographic data collection via multimedia and computational analysis using machine learning to corroborate many data sources together to produce a refined output for various purposes.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1115/DETC2016-59832 |isbn=978-0-7918-5019-0 |chapter=Computer-Aided Ethnography in Engineering Design |title=Volume 7: 28th International Conference on Design Theory and Methodology |year=2016 |last1=Dixon |first1=Adam |last2=Liu |first2=Ying |last3=Setchi |first3=Rossi }}</ref> A modern example of this technology in application, is the use of captured audio in smart devices, transcribed to issue targeted adverts (often reconciled vs other metadata, or product development data for designers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://time.com/5568815/amazon-workers-listen-to-alexa/|title = Thousands of Amazon Workers Listen to Alexa Users' Conversations| date=11 April 2019 |first1=Matt|last1=Day|first2=Giles|last2=Turner|first3=Natalia|last3=Drozdiak|website=Time}}</ref>

Digital ethnography comes with its own set of ethical questions, and the [[Association of Internet Researchers]]' ethical guidelines are frequently used.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Association of Internet Researchers Ethics Guidelines|url=https://aoir.org/ethics/}}</ref> Gabriele de Seta's paper "Three Lies of Digital Ethnography"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seta|first=Gabriele de|date=2020-02-17|title=Three lies of digital ethnography|url=https://jdsr.se/ojs/index.php/jdsr/article/view/24|journal=Journal of Digital Social Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=77–97|doi=10.33621/jdsr.v2i1.24|s2cid=213035202|issn=2003-1998|doi-access=free|hdl=11250/2754160|hdl-access=free}}</ref> explores some of the methodological questions more central to a specific ethnographic approach to internet studies, drawing upon Fine's classic text.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fine|first=Gary Alan|date=1993-10-01|title=TEN LIES OF ETHNOGRAPHY: Moral Dilemmas of Field Research|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/089124193022003001|journal=Journal of Contemporary Ethnography|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=267–294|doi=10.1177/089124193022003001|s2cid=144256882|issn=0891-2416|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Multispecies ethnography===

Multispecies ethnography in particular focuses on both nonhuman and human participants within a group or culture, as opposed to just human participants in traditional ethnography. A multispecies ethnography, in comparison to other forms of ethnography, studies species that are connected to people and our social lives. Species affect and are affected by culture, economics, and politics.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1548-1360.2010.01069.x|title = The Emergence of Multispecies Ethnography|year = 2010|last1 = Kirksey|first1 = S. Eben|last2 = Helmreich|first2 = Stefan|journal = Cultural Anthropology|volume = 25|issue = 4|pages = 545–576|hdl = 1721.1/61966| s2cid=145087075 |hdl-access = free}}</ref>

The study's roots go back to general anthropology of animals. One of the earliest well-known studies was [[Lewis H. Morgan|Lewis Henry Morgan]]'s The American Beaver and His Works (1868). His study closely observed a group of beavers in Northern Michigan. Morgan's main objective was to highlight that the daily individual tasks that the beavers performed were complex communicative acts that had been passed down for generations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Lewis Henry |title=The American beaver: a classic of natural history and ecology |date=1986 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-24995-6 |location=New York |oclc=12135104}}</ref>

In the early 2000s multi-species ethnography took on a huge increase in popularity. The annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] began to host the [https://www.multispecies-salon.org/ Multispecies Salon],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Multispecies Salon |url=https://www.multispecies-salon.org/ |access-date=2022-09-19 |website=The Multispecies Salon |language=en-US}}</ref> a collection of discussions, showcases, and other events for anthropologists. The event provided a space for anthropologists and artists to come together and showcase vast knowledge of different organisms and their intertwined systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kirksey |first1=S. Eben |last2=Helmreich |first2=Stefan |title=The Emergence of Multispecies Ethnography |date=November 2010 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1548-1360.2010.01069.x |journal=Cultural Anthropology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=545–576 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-1360.2010.01069.x|hdl=1721.1/61966 |s2cid=145087075 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Multispecies ethnography highlights a lot of the negative effects of these shared environments and systems. Not only does multispecies ethnography observe the physical relationships between organisms, it also takes note of the emotional and psychological relationships built between species.

===Relational ethnography===

Most ethnographies take place in specific places where the observer can observe specific instances that relate to the topic involved. Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people. Meaning that relational ethnography doesn't take an object nor a bounded group that is defined by its members shared social features nor a specific location that is delimited by the boundaries of a particular area. But rather the processes involving configurations of relations among different agents or institutions. For instance, such places could be created through an interconnection between the place at hand and the people that live within it and continuously re-create meaning by sharing and changing historic narratives of this place.<ref>Mikdashi, M., Nalbantian, T., Sbaiti, N., & Deeb, L. (2022). The Archive Is Burning: Law, Unknowability, and the Curation of History. In Practicing Sectarianism (pp. 52–80). Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503633872-006</ref> Applying this form of ethnography to land and landscape, Munira Khayyat suggests that this approach can also help to refocus previous versions of histories, for example the stories of soldiers and their reception in their homes, to those that have been impacted by the wars on the ground (e.g., civilians in Southern Lebanon).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khayyat |first=Munira |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2zp50qx?turn_away=true |title=A Landscape of War: Ecologies of Resistance and Survival in South Lebanon |date=2022 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-38998-4 |edition=1}}</ref>