Editing Common buzzard (section)

===Interspecies predatory relationships===
[[File:White-tailed Eagle with 2 Buzzards.jpg|thumb|A juvenile [[white-tailed eagle]] being [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mobbed]] by a pair of common buzzards over the [[Canna, Scotland|Isle of Canna]], as the eagle will sometimes prey on the buzzard.]]
Common buzzards co-occur with dozens of other raptorial birds through their breeding, resident and wintering grounds. There may be many other birds that broadly overlap in prey selection to some extent. Furthermore, their preference for interfaces of forest and field is used heavily by many birds of prey. Some of the most similar species by diet are the [[common kestrel]] (''Falco tinniculus''), [[hen harrier]] (''Circus cyaenus'') and [[lesser spotted eagle]] (''Clanga clanga''), not to mention nearly every European species of owl, as all but two may locally prefer [[rodent]]s such as [[vole]]s in their diets.<ref>Davis, T. A. W. (1960). ''Kestrel pellets at a winter roost''. Brit. Birds, 53(7), 281–284.</ref><ref>Redpath, S. M., Clarke, R., Madders, M., & Thirgood, S. J. (2015). ''Assessing raptor diet: comparing pellets, prey remains, and observational data at hen harrier nests''.</ref><ref>Lohmus, A., & Väli, Ü. (2004). ''The effects of habitat quality and female size on the productivity of the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina in the light of the alternative prey hypothesis''. Journal of Avian Biology, 35(5), 455–464.</ref><ref>Meunier, F. D., Verheyden, C., & Jouventin, P. (2000). ''Use of roadsides by diurnal raptors in agricultural landscapes''. Biological Conservation, 92(3), 291–298.</ref><ref name= Bergman>Bergman, G. (1961). ''The food of birds of prey and owls in Fenno-Scandia''. British Birds, 54, 307–320.</ref> Diet overlap was found to be extensive between buzzards and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') in [[Poland]], with 61.9% of prey selection overlapping by species although the dietary breadth of the fox was broader and more opportunistic. Both fox dens and buzzard roosts were found to be significantly closer to high vole areas relative to the overall environment here.<ref>Jankowiak, L., & Tryjanowski, P. (2013). ''Cooccurrence and food niche overlap of two common predators (red fox Vulpes vulpes and common buzzard Buteo buteo) in an agricultural landscape''. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 37(2), 157–162.</ref> The only other widely found European ''Buteo'', the rough-legged buzzard, comes to winter extensively with common buzzards. It was found in southern Sweden, habitat, hunting and prey selection often overlapped considerably. Rough-legged buzzards appear to prefer slightly more open habitat and took slightly fewer [[Apodemus|wood mice]] than common buzzard. Roughlegs also hover much more frequently and are more given to hunting in high winds. The two buzzards are aggressive towards one another and excluded each other from winter feeding territories in similar ways to the way they exclude conspecifics. In northern [[Germany]], the buffer of their habitat preferences apparently accounted for the lack of effect on each other's occupancy between the two buzzard species.<ref>Sylven, M. (1978). ''Interspecific relations between sympatrically wintering Common Buzzards Buteo buteo and Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus''. Ornis Scandinavica, 197–206.</ref><ref name="Schindler"/> Despite a broad range of overlap, very little is known about the ecology of common and [[long-legged buzzard]]s where they co-exist. However, it can be inferred from the long-legged species preference for predation on differing prey, such as [[Spalax|blind mole-rat]]s, [[ground squirrel]]s, [[hamster]]s and [[Meriones (genus)|gerbils]], from the voles usually preferred by the common species, that serious competition for food is unlikely.<ref>Kassinis, N. (2009). ''Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus rufinus breeding distribution and abundance in Cyprus''. Avocetta, 33, 75–78.</ref><ref>Bakaloudis, D. E., Iezekiel, S., Vlachos, C. G., Bontzorlos, V. A., Papakosta, M., & Birrer, S. (2012). ''Assessing bias in diet methods for the Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus''. Journal of Arid Environments, 77, 59–65.</ref>

A more direct negative effect has been found in buzzard's co-existence with [[northern goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilis''). Despite the considerable discrepancy of the two species dietary habits, habitat selection in Europe is largely similar between buzzards and goshawks. Goshawks are slightly larger than buzzards and are more powerful, agile and generally more aggressive birds, and so they are considered dominant. In studies from Germany and Sweden, buzzards were found to be less disturbance sensitive than goshawks but were probably displaced into inferior nesting spots by the dominant goshawks. The exposure of buzzards to a dummy goshawk was found to decrease breeding success whereas there was no effect on breeding goshawks when they were exposed to a dummy buzzard.<ref>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Analysis of nest occupancy and nest reproduction in two sympatric raptors: common buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis''. Ecography, 25(5), 523–532.</ref><ref>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Interactions between common buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis: trade‐offs revealed by a field experiment''. Oikos, 96(3), 441–452.</ref><ref>Taylor, K., Hudson, R., & Horne, G. (1988). ''Buzzard breeding distribution and abundance in Britain and Northern Ireland in 1983''. Bird Study, 35(2), 109–118.</ref> In many cases, in [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]], goshawks displaced buzzards from their nests to take them over for themselves.<ref>Kostrzewa, A. (1991). ''Interspecific interference competition in three European raptor species''. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 3(2), 127–143.</ref><ref name= Hakkarainen>Hakkarainen, H., Mykrä, S., Kurki, S., Tornberg, R., & Jungell, S. (2004). ''Competitive interactions among raptors in boreal forests''. Oecologia, 141(3), 420–424.</ref> In [[Poland]], buzzards productivity was correlated to prey population variations, particularly voles which could vary from 10 to 80 per hectare, whereas goshawks were seemingly unaffected by prey variations; buzzards were found here to number 1.73 pair per {{cvt|10|sqkm}} against goshawk 1.63 pair per {{cvt|10|sqkm}}.<ref>Goszczyński, J. (1997). ''Density and productivity of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis populations in Rogów, Central Poland''. Acta Ornithologica, 32(2), 149–155.</ref> In contrast, the slightly larger counterpart of buzzards in North America, the [[red-tailed hawk]] (which is also slightly larger than American goshawks, the latter averaging smaller than European ones) are more similar in diet to goshawks there. Redtails are not invariably dominated by goshawks and are frequently able to outcompete them by virtue of greater dietary and habitat flexibility. Furthermore, red-tailed hawks are apparently equally capable of killing goshawks as goshawks are of killing them (killings are more one-sided in buzzard-goshawk interactions in favour of the latter).<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Angela E. |last1=Gatto|first2=Teryl G. |last2=Grubb |first3=Carol L.|last3= Chambers |year=2006 |title=Red-tailed Hawk dietary overlap with Northern Goshawks on the Kaibab Plateau, Arizona |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=439–444 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/54211}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Boal, C. W. |year=2005|title=Productivity and mortality of northern goshawks in Minnesota|journal=J. Raptor Res.|volume= 39|issue=3|pages= 222–228|bibcode=2005JRapR..39..222B |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/54189}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Luttich, S., Rusch, D. H., Meslow, E. C., & Keith, L. B. |title=Ecology of Red-Tailed Hawk Predation in Alberta|journal=Ecology|volume=51|issue=2|pages=190–203|doi=10.2307/1933655|jstor=1933655|year=1970|bibcode=1970Ecol...51..190L }}</ref> Other raptorial birds, including many of similar or mildly larger size than common buzzards themselves, may dominate or displace the buzzard, especially with aims to take over their nests. Species such as the [[black kite]] (''Milvus migrans''), [[booted eagle]] (''Hieraeetus pennatus'') and the [[lesser spotted eagle]] have been known to displace actively nesting buzzards, although in some cases the buzzards may attempt to defend themselves. The broad range of accipitrids that take over buzzard nests is somewhat unusual. More typically, common buzzards are victims of nest parasitism to [[owl]]s and [[falcon]]s, as neither of these other kinds of raptorial birds builds their own nests, but these may regularly take up occupancy on already abandoned or alternate nests rather than ones the buzzards are actively using.<ref name= Sergio/><ref name= Costa/><ref>Sergio, F., & Boto, A. (1999). ''Nest dispersion, diet, and breeding success of Black Kites (Milvus migrans) in the Italian pre-Alps''. Journal of Raptor Research, 33, 207–217.</ref><ref>Meyburg, B. U. (1973). ''Studies of less familiar birds: 172. Lesser Spotted Eagle''. British Birds.</ref> Even with birds not traditionally considered raptorial, such as [[common raven]]s, may compete for nesting sites with buzzards.<ref name="Moore, N. W. 1957">Moore, N. W. (1957). ''The past and present status of the Buzzard in the British Isles''. British Birds, 50, 173–197.</ref> In urban vicinities of southwestern England, it was found that [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus'') were harassing buzzards so persistently, in many cases resulting in injury or death for the buzzards, the attacks tending to peak during the falcon's breeding seasons and tend to be focused on subadult buzzards.<ref>Dixon, N., & Gibbs, A. (2018). ''Extreme territorial aggression by urban Peregrine Falcons toward Common Buzzards in South-West England''. Ornis Hungarica, 26(2), 232-242.</ref> Despite often being dominated in nesting site confrontations by even similarly sized raptors, buzzards appear to be bolder in direct competition over food with other raptors outside of the context of breeding, and has even been known to displace larger birds of prey such as [[red kite]]s (''Milvus milvus'') and female buzzards may also dominate male goshawks (which are much smaller than the female goshawk) at disputed kills.<ref name= Hakkarainen/><ref>O'Connor, T. P. (1993). ''Birds and the scavenger niche''. Archaeofauna, (2).</ref>
[[File:Rupfung eines Mäusebussard.jpg|thumb|left|The remains of a common buzzard that was preyed on by a [[Eurasian eagle-owl]].]]
Common buzzards are occasionally threatened by predation by other raptorial birds. Northern goshawks have been known to have preyed upon buzzards in a few cases.<ref name= Sergio2>Sergio, F., & Hiraldo, F. (2008). ''Intraguild predation in raptor assemblages: a review birds''. Ibis, 150, 132–145.</ref><ref name= Bjorklund>Björklund, H., Santangeli, A., Blanchet, F. G., Huitu, O., Lehtoranta, H., Lindén, H., Valkama, J. & Laaksonen, T. (2016). ''Intraguild predation and competition impacts on a subordinate predator birds''. Oecologia, 181(1), 257–269.</ref> Much larger raptors are known to have killed a few buzzards as well, including [[steppe eagle]]s (''Aquila nipalensis'') on migrating steppe buzzards in [[Israel]]. Further instances of predation on buzzards have involved [[Golden eagle|golden]], [[Eastern imperial eagle|eastern imperial]] (''Aquila heliaca''), [[Bonelli's eagle|Bonelli's]] (''Aquila fasciata'') and [[white-tailed eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') in Europe.<ref>Weiss, N., & Yosef, R. (2010). ''Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) Hunts a Eurasian Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus) While in Migration over Eilat, Israel''. Journal of Raptor Research, 44(1), 77–79.</ref><ref>Todd, D.M. (1980). ''Golden Eagle killing buzzard''. British Birds, 73: 536–537.</ref><ref>Chavko, J., Danko, Š., Obuch, J., & Mihók, J. (2007). ''The food of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Slovakia''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 1, 1–18.</ref><ref>Horváth, M., Solti, B., Fatér, I., Juhász, T., Haraszthy, L., Szitta, T., Bállok, Z. & Pásztory-Kovács, S. (2018). ''Temporal changes in the diet composition of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Hungary''. Ornis Hungarica, 26(1), 1–26.</ref><ref>Gradoz, P. (1996). ''[Common Buzzard Buteo buteo captured in flight by a White-tailed Eagle Haliaetus albicilla.]'' 62: 165–166.</ref><ref>Resano, J., Bayle, P., Real, J., Hernández, A., Vincent-Martin, N. & Ravayrol, A. (2012). ''Analyse du régime alimentaire de l’Aigle de Bonelli Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot, 1822) pendant la saison de reproduction 2010 en France''. Université de Barcelone – Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, 1: 95–101.</ref> Besides preying on adult buzzard, white-tailed eagles have been known to raise buzzards with their own young. These are most likely cases of eagles carrying off young buzzard nestlings with the intention of predation but, for unclear reasons, not killing them. Instead the mother eagle comes to brood the young buzzard. Despite the difference of the two species diets, white-tailed eagles are surprisingly successful at raising young buzzards (which are conspicuously much smaller than their own nestlings) to fledging.<ref>Dementavičius, D. (2004). ''Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla): breeding parasitism or atypical feeding behaviour?'' Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 14(1), 76–79.</ref><ref>Literak, I., & Mraz, J. (2011). ''Adoptions of young common buzzards in white-tailed sea eagle nests''. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 123(1), 174–176.</ref> Studies in [[Lithuania]] of white-tailed eagle diets found that predation on common buzzards was more frequent than anticipated, with 36 buzzard remains found in 11 years of study of the summer diet of the white-tailed eagles. While nestling buzzards were multiple times more vulnerable to predation than adult buzzards in the Lithuanian data, the region's buzzards expelled considerable time and energy during the late nesting period trying to protect their nests.<ref>Kamarauskaitė, A., Dementavičius, D., Skuja, S., Dagys, M., & Treinys, R. (2020). ''Interaction between the White-tailed Eagle and Common Buzzard estimated by diet analysis and brood defence behaviour''. Ornis Fennica, 97(1), 26-37.</ref><ref>Dementavičius, D., Rumbutis, S., Virbickas, T., Vaitkuvienė, D., Dagys, M., & Treinys, R. (2020). ''Spatial and temporal variations in the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla breeding diet revealed by prey remains''. Bird Study, 67(2), 206-216.</ref> The most serious predator of common buzzards, however, is almost certainly the [[Eurasian eagle-owl]] (''Bubo bubo''). This is a very large owl with a mean body mass about three to four times greater than that of a buzzard. The eagle-owl, despite often taking small mammals that broadly overlap with those selected by buzzards, is considered a "super-predator" that is a major threat to nearly all co-existing raptorial birds, capably destroying whole broods of other raptorial birds and dispatching adult raptors even as large as eagles. Due to their large numbers in edge habitats, common buzzards frequently feature heavily in the eagle-owl's diet. Eagle-owls, as will some other large owls, also readily expropriate the nests of buzzards.<ref name= Sergio2/><ref>Lourenço, R., Rabaça, J. E., Delgado, M. D. M., & Penteriani, V. (2009). ''Intraguild predation by a European top predator–the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)''.</ref><ref>Chakarov, N., & Krüger, O. (2010). ''Mesopredator release by an emergent superpredator: a natural experiment of predation in a three level guild''. PLOS ONE, 5(12), e15229.</ref> In the [[Czech Republic]] and in [[Luxembourg]], the buzzard was the third and fifth most frequent prey species for eagle-owls, respectively.<ref>Zemanová, K. (2009). ''Potrava výra velkého na střední Moravě''.</ref><ref name= Bayle>Bayle, P., & Schauls, R. (2011). ''Biologie de quatre couples de grand-duc d’Europe Bubo bubo au Luxembourg''. Bull. Soc. Nat. luxemb, 112, 51.</ref> The reintroduction of eagle-owls to sections of [[Germany]] has been found to have a slight deleterious effect on the local occupancy of common buzzards. The only sparing factor is the temporal difference (the buzzard nesting later in the year than the eagle-owl) and buzzards may locally be able to avoid nesting near an active eagle-owl family.<ref>Schindler, S. (2002). ''Territoriality and habitat-use of wintering Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany'' (Doctoral dissertation, uniwien).</ref> As the ecology of the wintering population is relatively little studied, a similar very large owl at the top of the avian food chain, the [[Verreaux's eagle-owl]] (''Bubo lacteus''), is the only known predator of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa.<ref>Avery, G., Robertson, A. S., Palmer, N. G., & Prins, A. J. (1985). ''Prey of giant eagle owls in the de Hoop nature reserve, Cape province, and some observations on hunting strategy''. Ostrich, 56(1–3), 117–122.</ref> Despite not being known predators of buzzards, other large, vole-eating owls are known to displace or to be avoided by nesting buzzards, such as [[great grey owl]]s (''Strix nebulosa'') and [[Ural owl]]s (''Strix uralensis'').<ref name= Bjorklund/><ref>Byshnev, I.I. (2002). ''Interesting case of aggressive interaction between Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Ural Owl (Strix uralensis)''. Subbuteo, 5: 46.</ref> Unlike with large birds of prey, next to nothing is known of mammalian predators of common buzzards, despite up to several nestlings and fledglings being likely depredated by mammals.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Austin>Austin, G. E., & Houston, D. C. (1997). ''The breeding performance of the Buzzard Buteo buteo in Argyll, Scotland and a comparison with other areas in Britain''. Bird Study, 44(2), 146–154.</ref><ref name= Tubbs>Tubbs, C. R. (1972). ''Analysis of nest record cards for the Buzzard''. Bird Study, 19(2), 97–104.</ref>

Common buzzards themselves rarely present a threat to other raptorial birds but may occasionally kill a few of those of smaller size. The buzzard is a known predator of {{cvt|237|g}} [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]]s (''Accipiter nisus''), {{cvt|184|g}} [[common kestrel]] and {{cvt|152|g}} [[lesser kestrel]] (''Falco naumanni'') .<ref name= Steiner/><ref>Sarà, M., Campobello, D., & Zanca, L. (2012). ''Effects of nest and colony features on lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) reproductive success''. Avian Biology Research, 5(4), 209–217.</ref> Perhaps surprisingly, given the nocturnal habits of this prey, the group of raptorial birds the buzzard is known to hunt most extensively is owls.<ref>Mikkola, H. (1976). ''Owls killing and killed by other owls and raptors in Europe''. British Birds, 69, 144–154.</ref> Known owl prey has included {{cvt|419|g}} [[Western barn owl]]s (''Tyto alba''), {{cvt|92|g}} [[European scops owl]]s (''Otus scops''), {{cvt|475|g}} [[tawny owl]]s (''Strix aluco''), {{cvt|169|g}} [[little owl]]s (''Athene noctua''), {{cvt|138|g}} [[boreal owl]]s (''Aegolius funereus''), {{cvt|286|g}} [[long-eared owl]]s (''Asio otus'') and {{cvt|355|g}} [[short-eared owl]]s (''Asio flammeus'').<ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Manosa/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Steiner/><ref>Van Nieuwenhuyse, D., Genot, J. C., & Johnson, D. H. (Eds.). (2008). ''The little owl: conservation, ecology and behavior of Athene noctua''. Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Road Cambridge CB 2 2 RU UK.</ref><ref>Barnard. C.C. (1981). ''Buzzard preying on Short-eared Owl''. British Birds, 74: 226.</ref> Despite their relatively large size, tawny owls are known to avoid buzzards as there are several records of them preying upon the owls.<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref>Voous, K.H. 1988. ''Owls of the Northern Hemisphere''. The MIT Press, 0262220350.</ref><ref>Sunde, P. (2005). ''Predators control post‐fledging mortality in tawny owls, Strix aluco''. Oikos, 110(3), 461–472.</ref>