Editing Cavalry (section)

====Indian subcontinent====
In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the [[Gupta dynasty]] (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-[[stirrup]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/invention-of-the-stirrup-195161|title=Invention of the Stirrup|work=ThoughtCo|access-date=2017-03-11}}</ref>

Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of the [[Central Asia]]n horse nomads, notably the [[Saka]]s, [[Kambojas]], [[Yona|Yavanas]], [[The Pahlavas|Pahlavas]] and [[Paradas]]. Numerous [[Puranas|Puranic]] texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC)<ref>pp. 182–183, Pargiter.</ref> in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" (''pañca.ganan'') or [[Kshatriya|Kṣatriya]] hordes (''Kṣatriya ganah''), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its [[Vedic period|Vedic]] King Bahu<ref>Harivamsa 14.1–19; Vayu Purana 88.127–43; Brahma Purana (8.35–51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123–141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15–21), Padama Purana (6.21.16–33) etc.</ref>

[[File:Kurukshetra.jpg|thumb|left|Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra]]

The [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], numerous [[Puranas]] and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars".<ref>War in Ancient India, 1944, p. 178, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshtar, Military art and science.</ref> J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e. the Kamboja), the Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Mahabharata]] speaks among the finest horsemen".<ref>Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p. 257, American Oriental Society; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India: As ..., 1972, p. 201, Edward Washburn Hopkins – Caste; Mahabharata 10.18.13; cf: Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p. 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin – History; Cf also: A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p. 129, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet.</ref>

[[File:ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Coin of [[Chandragupta II]] or Vikramaditya, one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire during times referred to as the Golden Age of India]]
[[File:Rajput warrior on horseback, with caption in Kayathi and Nagari..jpg|thumb|upright|Rajput warrior on horseback]]

The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and [[Tusharas]], all of whom had participated in the [[Kurukshetra War and the Kambojas|Kurukshetra war]] under the supreme command of [[Kamboja Kingdom|Kamboja]] ruler [[Sudakshina Kamboja|Sudakshin Kamboj]].<ref>MBH 1.185.13; Felicitation Volume Presented to Professor Sripad Krishna Belvalkar, 1957, p. 260, Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, [[Shripad Krishna Belvalkar]].</ref>

Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being ''ashva.yuddha.kushalah'' (expert cavalrymen).<ref>Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, professor Sen Sarma etc.</ref> In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]] king [[Duryodhana]] of [[Hastinapur]]a.<ref>Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. Law – Kshatriyas; The Battle of Kurukshetra, 1987, p. 389, Maggi Lidchi-Grassi – Kurukshetra (India).</ref>

[[Herodotus]] ({{circa|484}} – {{circa|425 BC}}) attests that the [[Gandhara|Gandarian]] mercenaries (i.e. ''Gandharans/Kambojans'' of Gandari Strapy of [[Achaemenids]]) from the 20th strapy of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]]s were recruited in the army of emperor [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]] (486–465 BC), which he led against the [[Greeks|Hellas]].<ref>Herodotus, Book VII 65, 70, 86, 187.</ref> Similarly, the ''men of the Mountain Land '' from north of [[Kabul]]-River equivalent to medieval [[Kohistan District, North West Frontier Province|Kohistan]] (Pakistan), figure in the army of [[Darius III]] against [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] at [[Battle of Gaugamela|Arbela]], providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants.<ref>History of Persian Empire, p. 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3–6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 216, Dr Raychaudhury.</ref> This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush.

The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen (''asva-yuddha-Kushalah'').<ref>Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14 Kumbhakonam Edition; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, prof Sen Sarma; etc.; Kashmir Polity, C. 600–1200 AD 1986, p. 237, V. N. Drabu – Political Science.</ref> On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as [[Ashvakas]], i.e. the "horsemen"<ref>Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1943, p. 145, Dr K. P. Jayaswal.</ref> and their land was known as "Home of Horses".<ref>i.e.: ''Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam''. See: Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p. 124; See also: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–220, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. – Kshatriyas; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p. 351, Dr Buddha Prakash – India.</ref> They are the [[Assakenoi]] and [[Aspasioi]] of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] writings, and the [[Ashvakayana]]s and [[Ashvayana]]s in [[Pāṇini]]'s [[Ashtadhyayi]]. The Assakenoi had faced [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants.<ref>Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1967, p. 49, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri.</ref> Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of [[Kunar Valley|Kunar]] and [[Swat, Pakistan|Swat]] valleys as a section of the [[Kambojas]].<ref>''"Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" (''Asvanam ayatanam''), et cette reputation bien etablie gagné peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d'assakenoi (du skt asva "cheval")"'' (See: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; See also: Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p. 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–220, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p. 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee;; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p. 100 – History; East and West, 1950, pp. 28, 157–158, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp. 9–10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Porus, 1990, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Porus, 1967, p. 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp. 271–272, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp. 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp. 129, 218–219, S Kirpal Singh etc.</ref> These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander ({{circa|326 BC}}) during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians. These highlanders, designated as ''"parvatiya Ayudhajivinah"'' in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi,<ref>Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91; India as Known to Pāṇini, 1953, pp. 424, 436–439, 455–457, Dr V. S. Aggarwala.</ref> were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord.<ref>See: History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p. 225, Dr Buddha Prakash; Raja Porus, 1990, p. 9, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala.</ref>

The [[Sanskrit]] drama ''Mudra-rakashas'' by ''Visakha Dutta'' and the [[Jainism|Jaina]] work ''[[Parishishtaparvan]]'' refer to [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]]'s ({{circa|320 BC}} – {{circa|298 BC}}) alliance with [[Himalaya]]n king ''Parvataka''. The [[Himalaya]]n alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).{{efn|In Sanskrit:
: {{transliteration|sa|asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih}}
: {{transliteration|sa|Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara}}
: {{transliteration|sa|balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama}}
: (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).}} These hordes had helped [[Chandragupta Maurya]] defeat the ruler of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of [[Mauryan dynasty]] in Northern India.

The cavalry of [[Hunas]] and the Kambojas is also attested in the [[Raghuvaṃśa|Raghu Vamsa]] epic poem of Sanskrit poet [[Kalidasa]].<ref>Kālidāsa, 1960, p. 141, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar.</ref> Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be [[Chandragupta II]] (''Vikaramaditya'') (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known [[Gupta dynasty]].

As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to [[Bengal]] with the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]]s when the latter conquered part of the province.<ref>Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p. 511 Dr H. C. Ray.</ref><ref>History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp. 182–183, Dr [[R. C. Majumdar]].</ref><ref>Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p. 625.</ref><ref>Dynastic History of Magadha, 1977, p. 208.</ref><ref>Epigraphia Indiaca, XVIII, pp. 304ff.</ref>

Ancient Kambojas organised military ''sanghas'' and [[shreni]]s (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as [[Arthashastra]] of [[Kautiliya]] as well as the [[Mahabharata]] record. They are described as ''Ayuddha-jivi'' or ''Shastr-opajivis'' (nations-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its [[military]] services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry [[trooper (rank)|trooper]]s in ancient wars by outside [[nation]]s.