Editing Burushaski (section)

=== Nouns ===

==== Noun classes ====
In Burushaski, there are four [[noun class]]es, similar to declensional classes in [[Indo-European languages]], but unlike Indo-European, the nominal classes in Burushaski are associated with four grammatical "genders":
* '''m''' = male human beings, gods and spirits
* '''f''' = female human beings and spirits
* '''x''' = animals, [[countable]] nouns
* '''y''' = abstract concepts, fluids, uncountable nouns

Below, the abbreviation "'''h'''" will stand for the combination of the m- and f-classes, while "'''hx'''" will stand for the combination of the m-, f- and x-classes. Nouns in the x-class typically refer to countable, non-human beings or things, for example animals, fruit, stones, eggs, or coins; conversely, nouns in the y-class are as a rule uncountable abstractions or mass nouns, such as rice, fire, water, snow, wool, etc.

However, these rules are not universal – countable objects in the y-class are sometimes encountered, e.g. ''ha'', 'house'. Related words can subtly change their meanings when used in different classes – for example, ''bayú'', when a member of the x-class, means salt in clumps, but when in the y-class, it means powdered salt. Fruit trees are understood collectively and placed in the y-class, but their individual fruits belong to the x-class. Objects made of particular materials can belong to either the x- or the y- class: stone and wood are in the x-class, but metal and leather in the y-class. The [[Article (grammar)|article]], [[adjectives]], [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] and other attributes must be in [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] with the noun class of their subject.

==== Pluralisation ====
There are two [[grammatical number|numbers]] in Burushaski: singular and [[plural]]. The singular is unmarked, while the plural is expressed by means of suffix, which vary depending on the class of the noun:
* '''h-class''': possible suffixes {{transliteration|bsk|italic=no|-ting, -aro, -daro, -taro, -tsaro}}
* '''h- and x-class''': possible suffixes {{transliteration|bsk|italic=no|-o, -išo, -ko, -iko, -juko; -ono, -u; -i, -ai; -ts, -uts, -muts, -umuts; -nts, -ants, -ints, -iants, -ingants, -ents, -onts}}
* '''y-class''': possible suffixes {{transliteration|bsk|italic=no|-ng, -ang, -ing, -iang; -eng, -ong, -ongo; -ming, -čing, -ičing, -mičing, -ičang}} (Nagar dialect)

Some nouns admit two or three different suffixes, while others have no distinctive suffix, and occur only in the plural, e.g. ''bras'' 'rice', ''gur'' 'wheat', ''bishké'', 'fur', (cf. [[plurale tantum]]). On the other hand, there are also nouns which have identical forms in the singular and plural, e.g. ''hagúr'' 'horses'. Adjectives have a unique plural suffix, whose form depends on the class of the noun they modify, e.g. ''burúm'' 'white' gives the x-class plural ''burum-išo'' and the y-class plural ''burúm-ing''.

Examples of pluralisation in Burushaski:
* {{transliteration|bsk|wazíir}} (m), pl. ''wazíirishu'' 'vizier, minister'
* {{transliteration|bsk|hir}} (m), pl. ''hiri'' 'man' (stress shifts)
* {{transliteration|bsk|gus}} (f), pl. ''gushínga'' 'woman' (stress shifts)
* {{transliteration|bsk|dasín}} (f), pl. ''daseyoo'' 'girl', 'unmarried woman'
* {{transliteration|bsk|huk}} (x), pl. ''huká'' 'dog'
* {{transliteration|bsk|thely}} (x), pl. ''tilí'' 'walnut'
* {{transliteration|bsk|thely}} (y), pl. ''theleng'' 'walnut tree'

==== Declension ====
Burushaski is an [[ergativity|ergative]] language. It has five primary [[case (linguistics)|cases]].

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#c0f0f0;"
!Case
!Ending
!Function
|-
| [[Absolutive case|Absolutive]] || unmarked || The subject of intransitive verbs and the object of transitive ones.
|-
| [[Ergative case|Ergative]] || ''-e'' || The subject of transitive verbs.
|-
| [[Oblique case|Oblique]] || ''-e''; ''-mo'' (f)|| [[Genitive]]; the basis of secondary case endings
|-
| [[Dative case|Dative]] || ''-ar'', ''-r'' || Dative, [[allative]].
|-
| [[Ablative case|Ablative]] || ''-um'', ''-m'', ''-mo'' || Indicates separation (e.g. 'from where?')
|}

The case suffixes are appended to the plural suffix, e.g. ''Huséiniukutse'', 'the people of Hussein' (ergative plural). The genitive ending is irregular, /mo/, for singular f-class nouns, but /-e/ in all others (identical to the ergative ending). The dative ending, /-ar/, /-r/ is attached to the genitive ending for singular f-class nouns, but to the stem for all others. Examples:
* ''hir-e'' 'the man's', ''gus-mo'' 'the woman's' (gen.)
* ''hir-ar'' 'to the man', ''gus-mu-r'' 'to the woman' (dat.)

The genitive is placed before the thing possessed: ''Hunzue tham'', 'the Emir of Hunza.'

The endings of the secondary cases are formed from a secondary case suffix (or infix) and one of the primary endings /-e/, /-ar/ or /-um/. These endings are directional, /-e/ being locative (answering 'where?'), /-ar/ being terminative (answering 'where to?'), and /-um/ being ablative (answering 'where from?'). The infixes, and their basic meanings, are as follows:

# ''-ts-'' 'at'
# ''-ul-'' 'in'
# ''-aṭ-'' 'on; with'
# ''-al-'' 'near' (only in the Hunza dialect)

From these, the following secondary or compound cases are formed:

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#c0f0f0;"
!Infix
!Locative
!Terminative
!Ablative
|-
| '''-ts-''' || ''-ts-e'' 'at' || ''-ts-ar'' 'to' || ''-ts-um'' 'from'
|-
| '''-ul-''' || ''-ul-e'' 'in' || ''-ul-ar'' 'into' || ''-ul-um'' 'out of'
|-
| '''-aṭ-''' || ''-aṭ-e'' 'on','with' || ''-aṭ-ar'' 'up to' || ''-aṭ-um'' 'down from'
|-
| '''-al-''' || ''-al-e'' 'near' || ''-al-ar'' 'to' || ''-al-um'' 'from'
|}

The regular endings /-ul-e/ and /-ul-ar/ are archaic and are now replaced by /-ul-o/ and /-ar-ulo/ respectively.

==== Pronouns and pronominal prefixes ====
Nouns indicating parts of the body and kinship terms are accompanied by an obligatory pronominal prefix. Thus, one cannot simply say 'mother' or 'arm' in Burushaski, but only 'my arm', 'your mother', 'his father', etc. For example, the root ''mi'' 'mother', is never found in isolation, instead one finds:
* ''i-mi'' 'his mother', ''mu-mi'' 'her mother', "gu-mi" 'your mother'(3f sg.), ''u-mi'' 'their mother' (3h pl.), ''u-mi-tsaro'' 'their mothers'(3h pl.).

The pronominal, or personal, prefixes agree with the person, number and – in the third person, the class of their noun. A summary of the basic forms is given in the following table:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ''a-''
| ''mi-, me-''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ''gu-, go-''
| ''ma-''
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br />person
! m
| ''i-, e-''
| ''u-, o-''
|-
! f
| ''mu-''
| ''u-, o-''
|-
! x
| ''i-, y-''
| ''u-, o-''
|-
! y
| colspan="2" | ''i-, e-''
|}

Personal pronouns in Burushaski distinguish proximal and distal forms, e.g. ''khin'' 'he, this one here', but ''in'', 'he, that one there'. In the oblique, there are additional abbreviated forms.