Editing Breton language (section)

==Grammar==
{{main|Breton grammar}}
<!-- Description of the grammar of the language. -->

===Nouns===
Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.

====Gender====
Breton has two genders: masculine ({{lang|br|gourel}}) and feminine ({{lang|br|gwregel}}), having largely lost its historic neuter ({{lang|br|nepreizh}}) as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (''-ach/-aj,<ref name=BallGender/> -(a)dur,<ref name=BallGender/> -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va''<ref name="Stephens"/>) are masculine, while others (''-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i'', ''-eg'', ''-ell'', and the singulative ''-enn'') are feminine.<ref name="Stephens">{{Cite book|last=Stephens|first=Janig|title=The Celtic Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=041528080X|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin|series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions|location=London|pages=379|chapter=Breton|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}</ref> The suffix ''-eg'' can be masculine or feminine.<ref name=BallGender/>

There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for {{lang|br|eur}} "hour", {{lang|br|noz}} "night" and {{lang|br|sizhun}} "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.<ref name=BallGender>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|page=364|year=1993}}</ref>

However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.<ref name=BallGender/>

====Number====
Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.<ref name=BallNumber>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|pages=365–369|year=1993}}</ref> However, the system is full of complexities<ref name=Fortson/> in how this distinction is realized.

Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed in {{lang|br|daou}}, {{lang|br|di}} or {{lang|br|div}}) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Fortson/> The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes ({{lang|br|daoulagad}}) and ears ({{lang|br|divskouarn}}) can be pluralized "again" to form {{lang|br|daoulagad'''où'''}} and {{lang|br|diskouarn'''où'''}}.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Stephens/>

Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a [[singulative]] suffix that is used to form singulars out of [[collective nouns]], for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective {{lang|br|logod}} "mice" is {{lang|br|logod'''enn'''}} "mouse".<ref name=BallNumber/> However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- {{lang|br|pesk}} "fish" (singular) is pluralized to {{lang|br|pesked}}, singulativized to {{lang|br|peskedenn}}, referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make {{lang|br|peskedennoù}} "fishes".<ref name=Fortson/>

On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of {{lang|br|park}}: {{lang|br|parkoù}} "parks" and {{lang|br|parkeier}} "various different parks".<ref name=Fortson/> Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.<ref name=BallNumber/> Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: {{lang|br|dour}} "water" pluralized forms {{lang|br|dourioù}} which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while {{lang|br|doureier}} now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: {{lang|br|keloù}} means "news" and {{lang|br|*kel}} is not used, while {{lang|br|keleier}} has become the regular plural,<ref name=BallNumber/> 'different news items'.

Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – {{lang|br|bugel}} "child" is pluralized once into {{lang|br|bugale}} "children" and then pluralized a second time to make {{lang|br|bugaleoù}} "groups of children".<ref name=Fortson/>

The diminutive suffix {{lang|br|-ig}} also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: {{lang|br|bugelig}} means "little child", but the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bug'''ale'''ig'''où'''}} means "little children"; {{lang|br|bag}} boat has a singular diminutive {{lang|br|bagig}} and a simple plural {{lang|br|bagoù}}, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bag'''où'''ig'''où'''}}.<ref name=Fortson/><ref name=BallNumber/>

As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.

The most common plural marker is {{lang|br|-où}}, with its variant {{lang|br|-ioù}};<ref name=BallNumber/> most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.<ref name=BallNumber/>

Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in {{lang|br|-ed}}.<ref name=BallNumber/> However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word {{lang|br|Saoz}} ("Englishman", plural {{lang|br|Saozon}}) take the suffix {{lang|br|-ien}}, with a range of variants including {{lang|br|-on}}, {{lang|br|-ion}}, {{lang|br|-an}} and {{lang|br|-ian}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>

The rare pluralizing suffixes {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} and {{lang|br|-i}} are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: {{lang|br|-i}} triggers a [[vowel harmony]] effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to {{lang|br|i}} ({{lang|br|kenderv}} "cousin" → {{lang|br|kindirvi}} "cousins"; {{lang|br|bran}} "crow" → {{lang|br|brini}} "crows"; {{lang|br|klujur}} "partridge" → {{lang|br|klujiri}} "partridges"); the changes associated with {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} are less predictable.<ref name=BallNumber/>

Various nouns instead form their plural merely with [[ablaut]]: {{lang|br|a}} or {{lang|br|o}} in the [[Word stem|stem]] being changed to {{lang|br|e}}: {{lang|br|askell}} "wing" → {{lang|br|eskell}} "wings"; {{lang|br|dant}} "tooth" → {{lang|br|dent}} "teeth"; {{lang|br|kordenn}} "rope" → {{lang|br|kerdenn}} "ropes".<ref name=BallNumber/>

Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include {{lang|br|placʼh}} "girl" → {{lang|br|mercʼhed}}, {{lang|br|porcʼhell}} "pig" → {{lang|br|mocʼh}}, {{lang|br|buocʼh}} "cow" → {{lang|br|saout}}, and {{lang|br|ki}} "dog" → {{lang|br|chas}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>

In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.<ref name=BallNumber/>

===Verbal aspect===
As in other Celtic languages as well as [[English language|English]], a variety of verbal constructions is available to express [[grammatical aspect]], for example: showing a distinction between [[progressive tense|progressive]] and habitual actions:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Breton
! Cornish
! Irish
! English
|-
| {{lang|br|Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg}}
| {{lang|kw|'''Yth eso'vy ow kewsel''' orth ow hentrevek}}
| {{lang|ga|'''Táim ag labhairt''' le mo chomharsa}}
| I '''am talking''' to my neighbour
|-
| {{lang|br|Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg (bep mintin)}}
| {{lang|kw|My '''a gews''' orth ow hentrevek (pub myttin)}}
| {{lang|ga|'''Labhraím''' le mo chomharsa (gach maidin)}}
| I '''talk''' to my neighbour (every morning)
|}

===Inflected prepositions===
As in other modern [[Celtic languages]], Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of [[inflected preposition]]. Below are some examples in Breton, [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]], along with English translations.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Breton
! Cornish
! Welsh
! Irish
! Scottish Gaelic
! Manx
! English
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|ul levr zo '''ganin'''|a book is '''with-me'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma lyver '''genev'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae llyfr '''gennyf'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá leabhar '''agam'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha leabhar '''agam'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta lioar '''aym'''}}
| I have a book
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|un died zo '''ganit'''|a drink is '''with-you.SG'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma diwes '''genes'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae diod '''gennyt'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá deoch '''agat'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha deoch '''agad'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta jough '''ayd'''}}
| you have a drink
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''|a computer is '''with-him'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma jynn-amontya '''ganso'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae cyfrifiadur '''ganddo'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha coimpiutair '''aige'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta co-earrooder '''echey'''}}
| he has a computer
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''|a child is '''with-her'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma flogh '''gensi'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae plentyn '''ganddi'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá leanbh '''aici'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha leanabh '''aice'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta lhiannoo '''eck'''}}
| she has a child
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur cʼharr zo '''ganimp'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|ganeomp}}')|a car is '''with-us'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma karr '''genen'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae car '''gennym'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá gluaisteán / carr '''againn'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha càr '''againn'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta gleashtan / carr '''ain'''}}
| we have a car
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|un ti zo '''ganeocʼh'''|a house is '''with-you.PL'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma chi '''genowgh'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae tŷ '''gennych'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá teach '''agaibh'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha taigh '''agaibh'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta thie '''eu'''}}
| you have a house
|-
| {{interlinear|lang=br|arcʼhant zo '''ganto'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|gante}}')|money is '''with-them'''|}}
| {{lang|kw|yma mona '''gansa'''}}
| {{lang|cy|mae arian '''ganddynt'''}}
| {{lang|ga|tá airgead '''acu'''}}
| {{lang|gd|tha airgead '''aca'''}}
| {{lang|gv|ta argid '''oc'''}}
| they have money
|}
In the examples above the [[Goidelic languages]] (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning ''at'' to show possession, whereas the [[Brittonic languages]] use ''with''. The Goidelic languages, however, do use the preposition ''with'' to express "belong to" (Irish {{lang|ga|is liom an leabhar}}, Scottish {{lang|gd|is leam an leabhar}}, Manx {{lang|gv|s'lhiams yn lioar}}, The book belongs to me).

The Welsh examples are in [[literary Welsh morphology#Prepositions|literary Welsh]]. The order and preposition may differ slightly in [[colloquial Welsh morphology#Prepositions|colloquial Welsh]] (Formal {{lang|cy|mae car gennym}}, North Wales {{lang|cy|mae gynnon ni gar}}, South Wales {{lang|cy|mae car gyda ni}}).

===Initial consonant mutations===
{{Main|Breton mutations}}
Breton has four initial [[consonant mutation]]s: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Initial consonant mutations in Breton
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Unmutated<br /> consonant
! scope="col" colspan="4" | Mutations
|-
! scope="col"| Hard
! scope="col"| Mixed
! scope="col"| Soft
! scope="col"| Aspirant
|-
! scope="row"| ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}
| &nbsp; || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || &nbsp;
|-
! scope="row"| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}
| ''p'' {{IPA|[p̎]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || &nbsp;
|-
! scope="row"| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}
| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ''b'' {{IPA|[b̥]}} || ''f'' {{IPA|[v̥]}}
|-
! scope="row"| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| ''k'' {{IPA|[k͈]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || &nbsp;
|-
! scope="row"| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}
| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[x]}}
|-
!''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}
|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}
|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}
|''z'' {{IPA|[z]}}
|&nbsp;
|-
!''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|''d'' {{IPA|[d̥]}}
|''z'' {{IPA|[h]}}
|-
!''gw'' {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}
|''kw'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
|&nbsp;
|}

===Word order===
{{expand section|V2 word order|date=May 2022}}
Normal word order, like the other [[Insular Celtic languages]], is at its core [[verb–subject–object word order|VSO]] (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in [[main clause]]s are additionally subject to [[V2 word order]] in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.<ref name="V2">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=Non-Negative Word Order in Breton: Maintaining Verb-Second | journal=Transactions of the Philological Society | publisher=Wiley | volume=116 | issue=2 | date=12 January 2018 | issn=0079-1636 | doi=10.1111/1467-968x.12119 | pages=153–178| s2cid=148910543 | url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9131b11a-3eff-43b1-9055-b6c9f19b413b}}</ref> That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):

*the first places the verbal [[infinitive]] in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] {{lang|br|ober}} 'to do'.
*the second places the Auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}} 'to be' in initial position (as in (2)), followed the Subject, and the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive''. At the end comes the Object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.
*the third places the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive'' in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the Auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}}, the Subject, and the Object.
*the fourth option places the Object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Subject.
*the fifth, and originally least common, places the Subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Object, just like in English (SVO).

{{interlinear|number=(1)
| Lenn a ra brezhoneg
| read PRT do.3SG Breton
| 'He/she reads Breton.'}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
| Ema Yann {o lenn} brezhoneg
| be.3SG Yann reading Breton
| 'Yann is reading Breton.'}}

{{interlinear|number=(3)
| {O lenn} ema Yann brezhoneg
| reading be.3SG Yann Breton
| 'Yann is reading Breton.'}}

{{interlinear|number=(4)
| Mad eo an istor
| good be.3SG the story
| 'The story is good.'}}

{{interlinear|number=(5)
| An istor zo mad
| the story be.3SG good
| 'The story is good.'}}