Editing Antisemitism (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}
{{For timeline}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}

Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Chanes|2004}}
#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
#Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
#Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
#Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
#Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
#Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the [[New Antisemitism]]

Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; [[Christian antisemitism]], which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|pp=5–6}}

===Ancient world===
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to [[Alexandria]],{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=11}} the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the [[Septuagint]], a Greek translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]], was produced. [[Manetho]], an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of [[Chaeremon of Alexandria|Chaeremon]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Poseidonius]], [[Apollonius Molon]], and in [[Apion]] and [[Tacitus]].{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} [[Agatharchides of Cnidus]] ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of [[Torah|their Law]]", making a mocking reference to how [[Ptolemy Lagus]] was able to invade [[Jerusalem]] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the ''[[Shabbat]]''.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} One of the earliest anti-Jewish [[edict]]s, promulgated by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the [[Maccabees]] in [[Judea]].<ref name="gruen">{{cite encyclopedia |author-link=Erich S. Gruen |first=Erich S. |last=Gruen |year=1993|title=Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews |encyclopedia=Hellenistic History and Culture |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Green |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |pages=250–252 [238]}}</ref>

In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the [[Greeks|Greek]] retelling of [[Ancient Egypt]]ian prejudices".<ref name="Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', [[Harvard University Press]], 1997, p. 208.[[Peter Schaefer (author)|Peter Schäfer]]</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name="Barclay">{{cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |date=1999 |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |publisher=[[University of California]] |pages=78–79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Philo of Alexandria |author-link=Philo of Alexandria |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |title=Flaccus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804174650/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |archive-date=4 August 2007}}</ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as [[misanthropy|misanthropes]].<ref name="vanderhorst">{{cite book |last=Van Der Horst |first=Pieter Willem |date=2003 |title=Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom |series=Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |author-link=Pieter Willem van der Horst}}</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the ''[[polis|poleis]]''.<ref name="tcherikover">{{cite book |last=Tcherikover |first=Victor |title=Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews |location=New York |publisher=Atheneum |date=1975}}</ref>{{pn|date=January 2025}} Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name="Bohak">{{cite book |last=Bohak |first=Gideon |chapter=The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context |editor1-first=Menachem |editor1-last=Mor |editor2-first=Jack |editor2-last=Pastor |editor3-first=Aharon |editor3-last=Oppenheimer |editor4-first=Daniel R. |editor4-last=Schwartz |title=Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud |publisher=Yad Ben-Zvi Press |date=2003 |pages=27–43 |isbn=9652172057}}</ref>

Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many [[pagan]] [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[ancient Rome|Roman]] writers.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=3265911 |last=Daniels |first=J. L. |title=Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period |journal=[[Journal of Biblical Literature]] |volume=98 |issue=1 |year=1979 |pages=45–65 |doi=10.2307/3265911}}</ref> Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian [[Leprosy|lepers]] who had been taught by [[Moses]] "not to adore the gods."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=11–12}} Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=24–26}}

There are examples of [[Hellenistic]] rulers desecrating the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as [[circumcision]], Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.

The Jewish diaspora on the [[Nile River|Nile]] island [[Elephantine]], which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Colpe |first=Carsten |title=Anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly Online |editor1-first=Hubert |editor1-last=Cancik |editor2-first=Helmuth |editor2-last=Schneider |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |date=2008}}</ref>

[[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire]] were at times antagonistic and resulted in [[Jewish-Roman wars|several rebellions]]. According to [[Suetonius]], the emperor [[Tiberius]] expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian [[Edward Gibbon]] identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.{{cn|date=February 2025}} However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews [[History of antisemitism#Late Roman Empire|gradually worsened]].{{cn|date=January 2025}}

[[James Carroll (novelist)|James Carroll]] asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as [[pogrom]]s and [[forced conversion|conversion]]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=James |title=[[Constantine's Sword]] |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |date=2001 |isbn=0-395-77927-8 |page=26}}</ref>

===Persecutions during the Middle Ages===
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Banu Qurayza.png|thumb|The massacre of the [[Banu Qurayza]], a Jewish tribe in [[Medina]], 627]]

In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lowney |first1=Chris |title=A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain |date=1999 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=9789004112063 |pages=124–125}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Alberto |editor-last=Ferreiro |last1=Gonzalez Salinero |first1=Raul |title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society |date=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195311914 |pages=29–31}}</ref> ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gorsky |first1=Jeffrey |title=Exiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain |date=2015 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=9780827612419 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=964eCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26 |access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref>

From the 9th century, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] classified Jews and Christians as ''[[dhimmis]]'' and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in [[Middle Ages|medieval Christian Europe]]. Under [[Al-Andalus|Islamic rule]], there was a [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] that lasted until at least the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book |first=María Rosa |last=Menocal |author-link=María Rosa Menocal |title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain |date=April 2003 |publisher=Back Bay Books |isbn=978-0-316-16871-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/ornamentofworldh00meno}}</ref> It ended when several Muslim [[pogrom]]s against Jews took place on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], including those that occurred in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2002|pp=267–268}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada |title=Granada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224005745/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada |archive-date=24 December 2010 |first1=Richard |last1=Gottheil |first2=Meyer |last2=Kayserling |website=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |date=1906}}</ref>{{sfnp|Harzig|Hoerder|Shubert|2003|p=42}} Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bat |last=Ye'or |year=1985 |title=The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam |place=Madison, New Jersey |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |page=61 |isbn=978-0838632628 |author-link=Bat Ye'or}}</ref>

The [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], who had taken control of the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]]' [[Maghreb|Maghribi]] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name="islamicworldeb">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamic world |date=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 September 2007 |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213154933/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |archive-date=13 December 2007}}</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |title=The Almohads |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213223723/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |archive-date=13 February 2009 |website=Myjewishlearning.com |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728230344/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 |archive-date=28 July 2007 |title=Historical Timeline |url-status=dead |access-date=27 October 2018}}. The Forgotten Refugees</ref> Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}} while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}

[[File:Expulsion judios-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|[[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|Expulsions of Jews]] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
In [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Europe, Jews were persecuted with [[blood libel]]s, expulsions, [[forced conversion]]s and [[massacre]]s. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of [[Rhineland massacres|Jews were killed]] during the [[First Crusade]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Chazan |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Chazan |title=In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews |date=1996 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053850/https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |archive-date=26 July 2020}}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.<ref>{{cite book |first=Corliss K. |last=Slack |title=Historical Dictionary of the Crusades |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |pages=108–109 |isbn=9780810878310 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the [[Second Crusade]]. The [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]] both involved attacks, as did the [[Rintfleisch massacres]] in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,<ref>History of the reign of Charles VI, titled {{lang|fr|[[Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys]]}}, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.</ref> and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |title=Why the Jews? – Black Death |access-date=22 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211173212/http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |archive-date=11 December 2003}}</ref>

In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially [[Bernardino of Feltre]]) and Dominicans (especially [[Vincent Ferrer]]), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>{{cite book |first=Franco |last=Mormando |title=The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy |location=Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |date=1999 |chapter=2}}</ref>

As the [[Black Death]] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as [[scapegoating#Psychology and sociology|scapegoats]]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were [[Black Death Jewish persecutions|destroyed in numerous persecutions]]. Although [[Pope Clement VI]] tried to protect them by issuing two [[papal bull]]s in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were [[Strasbourg massacre|burned alive in Strasbourg]], where the plague had not yet affected the city.<ref name="Black">{{cite magazine |first1=Stéphane |last1=Barry |first2=Norbert |last2=Gualde |title=La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire |language=fr |trans-title=The greatest epidemics in history |magazine=[[L'Histoire]] |number=310 |date=June 2006 |page=47}}</ref>

===Reformation===
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}

[[Martin Luther]], an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]'', written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a [[pogrom]] against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to [[the Holocaust]]."{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=242}}

===17th century===
[[File:Vertreibung der Juden 1614.jpg|thumb|Etching of the [[Frankfurter Judengasse#The Fettmilch Uprising|expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt]] in 1614]]

During the mid-to-late 17th century the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3&nbsp;million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], when [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]'s supporters massacred tens of thousands of [[History of Jews in Poland|Jews]] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's [[Ukraine]]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and [[Slavery (Ottoman Empire)|captivity in the Ottoman Empire]], called ''jasyr''.<ref>{{cite news |quote=Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed. |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |title=Judaism Timeline 1618–1770 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020024503/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |archive-date=20 October 2012 |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=13 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |quote=... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage. |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Gilbert |title=Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |date=1999 |isbn=0-231-10965-2 |page=219}}</ref>

European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. [[Peter Stuyvesant]], the Dutch governor of [[New Amsterdam]], implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the [[American Revolutionary War]] that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Boyer |editor-first=Paul S. |title=The Oxford companion to United States history |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-508209-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42 42] |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42}}</ref>

In the [[Zaydi|Zaydi imamate]] of [[Yemen]], Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of [[Tihamah]] and which became known as the [[Mawza Exile]].<ref>Yosef Qafiḥ, ''Ketavim'' (''Collected Papers''), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, pp. 714–716 (Hebrew)</ref>

===Enlightenment===
In 1744, Archduchess of Austria [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known among the Jews as {{lang|de|[[malke-geld]]}} ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, Under Maria Teresa">{{cite book |last=Büchler |first=Alexander |chapter=Hungary |editor1-last=Singer |editor1-first=Isidore |title=The Jewish Encyclopedia |date=1904 |publisher=[[Funk and Wagnalls Co.]] |location=New York and London |volume=6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheJewishEncyclopediaVIGodIstria/page/n511 494–503]}}</ref> In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.

In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of these persecution practices in his {{lang|de|[[Toleranzpatent]]}},{{sfnp|O'Brien|1969|p=29}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingrao |first=W. Charles |title=The Habsburg Monarchy 1618-1815 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1994 |page=199}}</ref> on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.{{sfnp|O'Brien|1969|p=30}} [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

====Voltaire====
According to [[Arnold Ages]], [[Voltaire]]'s "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".<ref>Ages Arnold. "Tainted Greatness: The Case of Voltaire's Anti-Semitism: The Testimony of the Correspondence." Neohelicon 21.2 (Sept. 1994): 361.</ref> Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."<ref>Meyer, Paul H. "The Attitude of the Enlightenment Toward the Jew." Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 26 (1963): 1177.</ref> Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's ''[[Dictionnaire Philosophique]]'' concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.<ref>[[Léon Poliakov|Poliakov, L.]] ''The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner''. [[Routledge]] & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). page 88-89.</ref>

===Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution===
The [[counter-revolutionary]] Catholic royalist [[Louis de Bonald]] stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Battini1">{{Cite book |title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism |last=Battini |first=Michele |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2016 |pages=2–7 and 30–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Katz |first1=Jacob |title=From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933 |url=https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz |url-access=registration |date=1980 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz/page/112 112–115] |isbn=9780674325050}}</ref> Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced [[Napoleon]]'s decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{Cite book |title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism |last=Battini |first=Michele |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2016 |page=164}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Garṭner |first1=Aryeh |last2=Gartner |first2=Lloyd P. |title=History of the Jews in Modern Times |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart/page/116 116] |isbn=978-0-19-289259-1}}
|{{cite book |last1=Joskowicz |first1=Ari |title=The Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France |date=2013 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=99}}
|{{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Robert |last2=Rosen |first2=Philip |title=Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present |date=2007 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |page=67}}
}}</ref> Bonald's article {{lang|fr|Sur les juifs}} (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as [[Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux]], [[Charles Maurras]], and [[Édouard Drumont]], nationalists such as [[Maurice Barrès]] and [[Paolo Orano]], and antisemitic socialists such as [[Alphonse Toussenel]].<ref name="Battini1" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sanos |first1=Sandrine |title=The Aesthetics of Hate: Far-Right Intellectuals, Antisemitism, and Gender in 1930s France |date=2012 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Laqueur |first1=Walter |author1-link=Walter Laqueur |last2=Baumel |first2=Judith Tydor |title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |date=2001 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page=20}}</ref> Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.<ref name="Battini1" />{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}

Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist [[Louis Veuillot]] propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graetz |first1=Michael |title=The Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle |date=1996 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=208}}</ref> Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}} Gougenot des Mousseaux's {{lang|fr|Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens}} (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue [[Alfred Rosenberg]].{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}

===Imperial Russia===
[[File:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The victims of a 1905 [[pogrom]] in [[Dnipro|Yekaterinoslav]], Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)]]

Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack [[Haidamaka|Haidamaks]] in the 1768 [[massacre of Uman]] in the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]. In 1772, the empress of Russia [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]] forced the Jews into the [[Pale of Settlement]] &ndash; which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus &ndash; and to stay in their [[shtetls]] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the [[partition of Poland]]. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=358}} A decree by emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia]] in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the [[cantonist]] schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia |title=Military Service in Russia |author1-link=Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern |last=Petrovsky-Shtern |first=Yohanan |date=8 June 2017 |website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date=20 October 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052626/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia |url-status=live}}</ref>

Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under [[Czar Alexander II]] ({{reign|1855|1881}}).{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=359}} However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the [[May Laws]] of 1882. [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the [[czarevitch]], later crowned [[Czar Nicholas II]], declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".<ref>{{cite book |last=Van der Kriste |first=John |author-link=John Van der Kiste |title=The Romanovs 1818–1959 |publisher=Sutton |date=1998 |page=104}}</ref>

===Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century===
Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in [[Muslim]] countries. [[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name="Morris10">{{cite book |author-link=Benny Morris |last=Morris |first=Benny |title=[[iarchive:righteousvictims0000morr|Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001]] |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |date=2001 |pages=10–11}}</ref>

In the middle of the 19th century, [[J. J. Benjamin]] wrote about the life of [[Persian Jews]], describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."<ref>{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=The Jews of Islam |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton |year=1984 |pages=181–183 |isbn=978-0-691-00807-3}}</ref>

In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. [[Moses Montefiore]], on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in [[Purim]] and [[Passover]]; Arabs called the [[Sephardi]]s 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the [[Ulema]] and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.<ref>{{cite book |last=Montefiore |first=Simon Sebag |author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore |title=Jerusalem |publisher=Phoenix |date=2011 |pages=429–432}}</ref>

At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=What Went Wrong? |publisher=Phoenix |date=2002 |page=172}}</ref>

===Secular or racial antisemitism===
[[Image:Wagner Das Judenthum in der Musik 1869.jpg|thumb|Title page of the second edition of ''Das Judenthum in der Musik'', published in 1869]]
[[File:L Agitation-Antisemite.jpg|thumb|Antisemitic agitators in Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during the [[Dreyfus affair]]]]

In 1850, the German composer [[Richard Wagner]] – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"<ref name="bismarck" /> – published {{lang|de|[[Das Judenthum in der Musik]]}} (roughly "Jewishness in Music")<ref name="bismarck">{{cite book |author-link=Jonathan Steinberg (historian) |last=Steinberg |first=Jonathan |date=2011 |title=Bismarck: A Life |location=New York: Oxford |pages=388–390 |isbn=978-0-19-997539-6}}</ref> under a [[pseudonym]] in the ''[[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik]]''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in [[Culture of Germany|German culture]], who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:<ref name="bismarck" />

{{blockquote|According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.<ref name="bismarck" />}}

Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.<ref name="bismarck" />

Antisemitism can also be found in many of the [[Grimms' Fairy Tales]] by [[Jacob Grimm|Jacob]] and [[Wilhelm Grimm]], published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the [[villain]] of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("{{lang|de|Der gute Handel}}") and "[[The Jew Among Thorns]]" ("{{lang|de|Der Jude im Dorn}}").

The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.<ref name=BDE>{{cite bklyn |title=The Despot of Russia... |image=50249029 |date=22 December 1846 |page=2}}</ref>

Even such influential figures as [[Walt Whitman]] tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.<ref name=BDE-Whitman>{{cite bklyn |title=Anecdotes of Jews, and their peculiar traits |image=50243090 |page=2 |date=8 January 1847}}</ref>

The [[Dreyfus Affair]] was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a Jewish artillery [[wikt:captain|captain]] in the [[French Army]], was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to [[life imprisonment]] on [[Devil's Island]]. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. [[Émile Zola]] accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: [[Palgrave MacMillan]] {{ISBN|0333652460}}.</ref>

[[Adolf Stoecker]] (1835–1909), the [[Lutheran]] court chaplain to [[Kaiser Wilhelm I]], founded in 1878 an antisemitic, [[Liberalism|anti-liberal]] political party called the [[Christian Social Party (Germany)|Christian Social Party]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Harold M. |last=Green |year=2003 |title=Adolf Stoecker: Portrait of a Demagogue |journal=[[Politics and Policy]] |volume=31 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-1346.2003.tb00889.x |issue=1 |pages=106–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=D. A. Jeremy |last=Telman |year=1995 |title=Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission |jstor=20101235 |journal=Jewish History |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=93–112 |doi=10.1007/BF01668991 |s2cid=162391831}}</ref> This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the [[German National People's Party]].

Some scholars view [[Karl Marx]]'s essay "[[On The Jewish Question]]" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=168}}<ref name="Jacobs2005">{{cite book |chapter=Marx, Karl (1818–1883) |title=Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |last=Jacobs |first=Jack |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Richard S. |editor-link=Richard S. Levy |year=2005 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-439-4 |pages=446–447}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=112}} These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced [[Nazism|National Socialist]], as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2005|pp=154–157}}<ref name="Stav2003">{{cite book |chapter=Israeli Anti-Semitism |title=Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk |last=Stav |first=Arieh |editor-last=Sharan |editor-first=Shlomo |year=2003 |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |location=Brighton |isbn=978-1-903900-52-9 |page=171 |quote=Hitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism.}}</ref><ref name="Muravchik2003">According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four-point: "combat[ing] the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can […] achieve permanent health." See {{cite book |title=Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |last=Muravchik |first=Joshua |author-link=Joshua Muravchik |year=2003 |publisher=[[Encounter Books]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-1-893554-45-0 |page=164}}</ref> Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and [[Albert Lindemann]] and [[Hyam Maccoby]] have suggested that he was [[Self-hating Jew|embarrassed by it]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindemann |first=Albert S. |title=Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-79538-8 |page=166}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Antisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity |last=Maccoby |first=Hyam |year=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-31173-1 |pages=64–66}}</ref>

Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|pp=141–142}}<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite journal |first=Y. |last=Peled |title=From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation |journal=[[History of Political Thought]] |volume=13 |issue=3 |year=1992 |pages=463–485 |url=https://telaviv.academia.edu/YoavPeled/Papers/228344/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation |access-date=2 November 2017 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161924/https://www.academia.edu/280575/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation |url-status=live}}
|{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Wendy |author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist) |year=1995 |contribution=Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question' |editor1-last=Sarat |editor1-first=Austin |editor2-last=Kearns |editor2-first=Thomas |title=Identities, Politics, and Rights |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |pages=85–130}}
|{{cite journal |first=Robert |last=Fine |title=Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism |journal=Engage |issue=2 |date=May 2006 |url=http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&article_id=33 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224193202/http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10 |archive-date=24 February 2012}}
}}</ref> Iain Hampsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-Semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>{{cite book |first=Iain |last=Hampsher-Monk |title=A History of Modern Political Thought |date=1992 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |page=496}}</ref>

David McLellan and [[Francis Wheen]] argue that readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with [[Bruno Bauer]], author of ''[[The Jewish Question]]'', about [[Jewish emancipation]] in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>{{cite book |last=Wheen |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Wheen |title=Karl Marx |date=1999 |publisher=Fourth Estate |page=56}}</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word {{lang|de|Judentum}} colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the [[capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|p=142}}

===20th century===
{{See also|Jewish Bolshevism|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 133-075, Worms, Antisemitische Presse, "Stürmerkasten".jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper ''[[Der Stürmer]]'', [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], Germany, 1935]]

Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75&nbsp;million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire|the pogroms]]. This increase, combined with the [[upward social mobility]] of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of [[Leo Frank]] by a mob of prominent citizens in [[Marietta, Georgia]], in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C&pg=PA72 72]}} The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] which had been inactive since 1870.{{sfnp|Levy|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC&pg=PA243 vol. 1, p.&nbsp;72]}}

At the beginning of the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia represented modern incidents of [[blood libel|blood-libel]]s in Europe. During the [[Russian Civil War]], close to 50,000 Jews were [[Pogroms of the Russian Civil War|killed in pogroms]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War |title=Russian Civil War |last=Abramson |first=Henry |website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date=6 February 2019 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115175836/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War |url-status=live}}</ref>

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the [[interwar period]]. The pioneer automobile manufacturer [[Henry Ford]] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of [[Father Coughlin]] in the late 1930s attacked [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: [[Louis T. McFadden]], Chairman of the [[United States House Committee on Banking and Currency]], blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the [[gold standard]], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book |last=Arad |first=Gulie Ne'eman |title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism |year=2000 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Indianapolis |isbn=978-0-253-33809-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174}}</ref>

<!-- [[File:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|thumb|"Selection" on the ''Judenrampe'', [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the [[gas chamber]]s. This image shows the arrival of [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] Jews from [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpatho-Ruthenia]], many of them from the [[Berehove|Berehov]] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the [[SS]]. Courtesy of [[Yad Vashem]].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html |title=The Auschwitz Album |website=[[Yad Vashem]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050401084652/http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html |archive-date=1 April 2005}}</ref> {{FFDC|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6|date=May 2012}}]] -->
[[File:Buchenwald Corpses 60623.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated [[Buchenwald concentration camp]], 1945]]

In Germany, shortly after [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] [[Machtergreifung|came to power]] in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.{{sfnp|Majer|2014|p=60}}<ref>see also [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] (7 April 1933)</ref>

In September 1935, the [[Nuremberg Laws]] prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as {{lang|de|[[Rassenschande]]}} ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and [[half-Jew]]s, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").{{sfnp|Majer|2014|pp=113, 116, 118}} It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed ''[[Kristallnacht]]'', in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Kershaw |author-link=Ian Kershaw |date=2008 |title=Fateful Choices |pages=441–444}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2025}} Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to [[German-occupied Europe]] in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.{{cn|date=January 2025}}

In 1940, the famous aviator [[Charles Lindbergh]] and many prominent Americans led the [[America First Committee]] in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html |title='America First,' a phrase with a loaded anti-Semitic and isolationist history |last=Bennett |first=Brian |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=20 January 2017 |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107115008/https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/ |title=A Short History of 'America First' |last=Calamur |first=Krishnadev |date=21 January 2017 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203044351/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66 |title=1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm |last=Dunn |first=Susan |date=4 June 2013 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0300195132 |pages=66 |access-date=26 November 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001721/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings &ndash; his letters and diary &ndash; to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to {{lang|de|Kristallnacht}} by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Wayne S. |date=1974 |title=Charles Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II |location=New York |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |pages=171–174 |isbn=0-15-118168-3}}</ref> An article by Jonathan Marwil in ''Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution'' claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.<ref>Levy, Richard S. "Lindbergh, Charles (1902–1974)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 1, pp.423–424}}</ref>

In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos [[Warsaw Ghetto|in Warsaw]], [[Kraków Ghetto|in Kraków]], [[Lwów Ghetto|in Lvov]], [[Lublin Ghetto|in Lublin]] and [[Radom Ghetto|in Radom]].<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) ''The Third Reich: A Concise History''. Tempus.</ref>
After [[Operation Barbarossa|the beginning]] of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the [[Einsatzgruppen]], culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic [[genocide]]: [[the Holocaust]].<ref name="saul1">[[Saul Friedländer]] (2008): ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews''. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Benz |first=Wolfgang |author-link=Wolfgang Benz |title=Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus |language=de |trans-title=Dimension of Genocide: The Number of Jewish Victims of National Socialism |location=Munich |orig-date=1991 |editor-first=Israel |editor-last=Gutman |series=Encyclopedia of the Holocaust |publisher=Macmillan Reference Books: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag |edition=Reference |date=1 October 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Lucy Dawidowicz |last=Dawidowicz |first=Lucy |title=The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945 |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |date=1975}}</ref>{{pn|date=January 2025}}