Editing Alfalfa (section)

== Safety concerns ==
Alfalfa sprouts may contain microbiological pathogens, mainly from ''[[Salmonella]]'' or [[Escherichia coli|''E.''&nbsp;''coli'']], which have caused numerous food product recalls and illness outbreaks, putting sprouts into a "high risk" category for food safety.<ref name="ontario" /><ref name="cdc">{{cite web |date=28 February 2023 |title=''Salmonella'' Outbreak Linked to Alfalfa Sprouts |url=https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/typhimurium-12-22/index.html |access-date=7 October 2023 |publisher=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref><ref name="baker">{{cite web |author1=Kimberly Baker |date=1 December 2016 |title=The Food Safety of Sprouts: Factsheet |url=https://www.clemson.edu/extension/food/food2market/factsheets/7-the-food-safety-of-sprouts-factsheets.html |access-date=7 October 2023 |publisher=Consumer Food Safety Program, Cooperative Extension, Clemson University}}</ref> People with weakened immune systems, such as the elderly, pregnant women, or those taking [[prescription drug]]s affecting the immune system, should not eat sprouts.<ref name="baker" />

With long-term human consumption of alfalfa seeds, several safety concerns and medication interactions may result, including possible reactions similar to [[lupus erythematosus]], an [[autoimmune disease]].<ref name="mlp">{{cite web |date=24 September 2021 |title=Alfalfa |url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/natural/19.html |access-date=7 October 2023 |publisher=MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine}}</ref>

Other concerns are for women during pregnancy or breast-feeding, hormone-sensitive conditions (such as breast, uterine, and ovarian cancers), and for people with [[diabetes]].<ref name="mlp" /> Alfalfa may interact with [[warfarin]] (e.g. Coumadin), birth control pills (contraceptive drugs), and [[estrogens]].<ref name="mlp" />

=== Toxicity of canavanine ===
Raw alfalfa seeds and sprouts are a source of the amino acid [[canavanine]]. Much of the canavanine is converted into other amino acids during germination, so sprouts contain much less canavanine than unsprouted seeds.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jay D. Mann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ebW4QzlolAUC&pg=PA45 |title=How to Poison Your Spouse the Natural Way: A Guide to High-Risk Dining |publisher=JDM & Associates |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-877139-73-4 |page=45}}</ref> Canavanine competes with [[arginine]], resulting in the synthesis of dysfunctional proteins. Raw unsprouted alfalfa has toxic effects in primates, including humans, which can result in lupus-like symptoms and other immunological diseases in susceptible individuals.<ref name="pmid6178289">{{Cite journal |last1=Bardana Jr |first1=E. J. |last2=Malinow |first2=M. R. |last3=Houghton |first3=D. C. |last4=McNulty |first4=W. P. |last5=Wuepper |first5=K. D. |last6=Parker |first6=F |last7=Pirofsky |first7=B |year=1982 |title=Diet-induced systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in primates |journal=American Journal of Kidney Diseases |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=345–52 |doi=10.1016/s0272-6386(82)80005-x |pmid=6178289}}</ref><ref name="pmid1862241">{{Cite journal |last1=Montanaro |first1=A |last2=Bardana Jr |first2=E. J. |year=1991 |title=Dietary amino acid-induced systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=323–32 |doi=10.1016/S0889-857X(21)00573-1 |pmid=1862241}}</ref> Stopping consumption of alfalfa seeds can reverse the effects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=V. |last2=Kasdan |first2=T. S. |date=1 October 1994 |title=Alfalfa, vitamin E, and autommune disorders |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=639–640 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/60.4.639 |pmid=8092103}}</ref>

=== Phytoestrogens and effect on livestock fertility ===
Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a source of [[phytoestrogen]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saloniemi|first=Hannu|author2=Wähälä, Kristiina|author3=Nykänen-Kurki, Päivi|author4= Kallela, Kaarlo|author5= Saastamoinen, Ilkka|pmid=7892287|doi=10.3181/00379727-208-43825|volume=208|issue=1|title=Phytoestrogen content and estrogenic effect of legume fodder|date=January 1995|journal=Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine|pages=13–7|s2cid=40324719}}</ref> including [[spinasterol]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemical Substance - alpha-Spinasterol|url=http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca/nhpid-bdipsn/ingredReq.do?id=3052&lang=eng|publisher=Health Canada|access-date=3 August 2013|date=8 July 2013|archive-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224051603/http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca/nhpid-bdipsn/ingredReq.do?id=3052&lang=eng|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[coumestrol]], and [[coumestan]].<ref name=CPPIS>{{cite web |title=Notes on poisoning: alfalfa |url=http://www.cbif.gc.ca/eng/species-bank/canadian-poisonous-plants-information-system/all-plants-common-name/canadian-poisonous-plants-information-system-alfalfa-common-name/?id=1370403267050 |work=Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System |publisher=Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility |access-date=30 October 2014 |date=8 July 2014}}</ref> Because of this, grazing on alfalfa during breeding can cause reduced [[fertility]] in sheep and in dairy cattle if not effectively managed.<ref name=CPPIS/><ref name="Fields-2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Fields|first1=R. L.|last2=Moot|first2=D. J.|last3=Sedcole|first3=J. R.|last4=Barrell|first4=G. K.|s2cid=91082792|date=2019|title=Recovery of ovulation rate in ewes following their removal from an oestrogenic lucerne forage|journal=Animal Production Science|language=en|volume=59|issue=3|pages=493|doi=10.1071/AN17586|issn=1836-0939}}</ref>

Coumestrol levels in alfalfa have been shown to be elevated by fungal infection, but not significantly under drought stress<ref>Fields, R.L.,  D.J. Moot, and G.K. Barrell. 2017. [http://www.agronomyaustraliaproceedings.org/images/sampledata/2017/24_ASA2017_Fields_Rachel_Final.pdf Coumestrol content of lucerne under drought stress], Proceedings of the 18th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, Ballarat, Australia.</ref> or aphid infestation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fields|first1=Rachel L.|last2=Barrell|first2=Graham K.|last3=Gash|first3=Alan|last4=Zhao|first4=Jenny|last5=Moot|first5=Derrick J.|date=2018|title=Alfalfa Coumestrol Content in Response to Development Stage, Fungi, Aphids, and Cultivar|journal=Agronomy Journal|language=en|volume=110|issue=3|pages=910|doi=10.2134/agronj2017.09.0535|issn=0002-1962|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018AgrJ..110..910F |hdl=10182/10252|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Grazing management can be utilised to mitigate the effects of coumestrol on ewe reproductive performance, with full recovery after removal from alfalfa.<ref name="Fields-2019" /> Coumestrol levels in unirrigated crops can be predicted practically using weather variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fields|first1=Rachel Lilian|last2=Sedcole|first2=J. Richard|last3=Barrell|first3=Graham Keith|last4=Moot|first4=Derrick Jan|date=2019-10-02|title=Prediction of coumestrol content in unirrigated lucerne crops using weather variables|journal=New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research|language=en|volume=62|issue=4|pages=528–542|doi=10.1080/00288233.2018.1519512|bibcode=2019NZJAR..62..528F |s2cid=92277149|issn=0028-8233}}</ref>

{{nutritional value | name=Alfalfa seeds, sprouted, raw
| kJ=96
| water=93 g
| protein=4 g
| fat=0.7 g
| carbs=2.1 g
| fiber=1.9 g
| calcium_mg=32
| iron_mg=0.96
| magnesium_mg=27
| phosphorus_mg=70
| potassium_mg=79
| sodium_mg=6
| zinc_mg=0.92
| manganese_mg=0.188
| vitC_mg=8.2
| thiamin_mg=0.076
| riboflavin_mg=0.126
| niacin_mg=0.481
| pantothenic_mg=0.563
| vitB6_mg=0.034
| folate_ug=36
| vitK_ug=30.5
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168384/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}