Editing Adolescence (section)

==Social development==

===Identity development===
Identity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle.<ref name="Kroger, J. 1996 pp. 40-46">Kroger, J. (1996). ''The Balance Between Self and Other''. (pp. 40–46). New York CityA. [[Routledge]]</ref> For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years, adolescents are more open to 'trying on' different behaviours and appearances to discover who they are.<ref name="Strasburger, V.C. 2014 pp. 11-19">{{cite book |last1=Strasburger |first1=V.C. |last2=Wilson |first2=B.J. |last3=Jordan |first3=A.B. |year=2014 |chapter=Children and Adolescents: Unique Audiences |title=Children, Adolescents, and the Media |pages=11–19 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] }}{{isbn missing}}</ref> In an attempt to find their identity and discover who they are, adolescents are likely to cycle through a number of identities to find one that suits them best. Developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years) is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and social status.<ref name="Kroger, J. 1996 pp. 40-46"/> Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as [[Identity formation|identity development]], rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. New York, NY: [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> The two main aspects of identity development are self-clarity and self-esteem.<ref name="Strasburger, V.C. 2014 pp. 11-19"/> Since choices made during adolescent years can influence later life, high levels of self-awareness and self-control during mid-adolescence will lead to better decisions during the transition to adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arain |first1=Mariam |last2=Haque |first2=Maliha |last3=Johal |first3=Lina |last4=Mathur |first4=Puja |last5=Nel |first5=Wynand |last6=Rais |first6=Afsha |last7=Sandhu |first7=Ranbir |last8=Sharma |first8=Sushil |title=Maturation of the adolescent brain |journal=Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat |date= Apr 3, 2013|volume=9 |pages=449–461 |doi=10.2147/NDT.S39776 |pmid=23579318 |pmc=3621648 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991).<ref name="psychtoday"/> The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. Studies done by the [[American Psychological Association]] have shown that adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more difficult time developing their identity.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment">[[American Psychological Association]] (APA). [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]].</ref>

====Self-concept====
{{See also|Self-concept}}
The idea of self-concept is known as the ability of a person to have opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistent and stable.<ref name="Valkenburg & Peter 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Valkenburg |first1=Patti M. |last2=Peter |first2=Jochen |title=Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |date=February 2011 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=121–127 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.020 |pmid=21257109 |s2cid=205650071 }}</ref> Early in adolescence, [[cognitive development]]s result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves by physical traits whereas adolescents define themselves based on their values, thoughts, and opinions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Psychology: the science of behaviour|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Education Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref>

Adolescents can conceptualize multiple "possible selves" that they could become<ref name="Markus1986">{{cite journal|author1=Markus H. |author2=Nurius P. |year = 1986 | title = Possible selves|journal = American Psychologist|volume = 41|issue = 9| pages = 954–969 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954 |s2cid=550525 }}</ref> and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780471726746.ch4 |chapter=Socialization and Self-Development: Channeling, Selection, Adjustment, and Reflection |title=Handbook of Adolescent Psychology |year=2004 |last1=Nurmi |first1=Jari-Erik |pages=85–124 |isbn=978-0-471-20948-5 }}</ref> Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the [[self-discrepancy theory#Actual|actual]] self toward the [[self-discrepancy theory#Ideal|ideal]] self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.<ref name="Markus1986" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oyserman |first1=Daphna |last2=Markus |first2=Hazel R. |title=Possible selves and delinquency |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=1990 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.112 |pmid=2213484 }}</ref>

Further distinctions in self-concept, called "differentiation," occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves.<ref name="Harter, S. 1999">Harter, S. (1999). ''The construction of the self''. New York: Guilford Press.{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref> Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Herbert W. |title=Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early adulthood |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |date=September 1989 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=417–430 |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.417 }}</ref> Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the [[personality traits]] adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years (see [[Cognitive dissonance]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harter |first1=Susan |last2=Monsour |first2=Ann |title=Development analysis of conflict caused by opposing attributes in the adolescent self-portrait. |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=March 1992 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=251–260 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.251 }}</ref> but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.

====Sense of identity====
[[Egocentrism]] in adolescents forms a self-conscious desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance.<ref>Carlson, N. R., & Heth, C. (2010).</ref> Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas [[Erik Erikson]] argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson's theory of [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|stages of development]] includes the [[identity crisis]] in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of "identity achievement" but also stressed that the identity challenge "is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time".<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 287. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their [[Crowds (adolescence)|crowd membership]]. "Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers." Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers "finding their selves"; Fashion is always evolving, which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers.<ref>"You're Wearing That?" by Stacey Schultz. U.S. News & World Report Special Issue</ref> Adolescents attempt to define their identity by consciously styling themselves in different manners to find what best suits them. Trial and error in matching both their perceived image and the image others respond to and see, allows for the adolescent to grasp an understanding of who they are.<ref name="Rawlins">{{Citation |last=Rawlins |first=W.K. |title= Friendship matters: Communication, dialectics, and life course |publisher= Aldine de Gruyter |place= New York |year= 1992}}</ref>

Just as fashion is evolving to influence adolescents so is the media. "Modern life takes place amidst a never-ending barrage of flesh on screens, pages, and billboards."<ref>"The Media Assault on Male Body Image" by Brandon Klein. Seed Magazine.</ref> This barrage consciously or subconsciously registers into the mind causing issues with self-image a factor that contributes to an adolescence sense of identity. Researcher James Marcia developed the current method for testing an individual's progress along these stages.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Marcia J | s2cid = 29342469 | year = 1966 | title = Development and validation of ego identity status | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 551–558 | doi = 10.1037/h0023281 | pmid = 5939604 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Marcia J | s2cid = 29342469 | year = 1976 | title = Identity six years after: A follow-up study | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 551–558 | pmid = 5939604 | doi=10.1037/h0023281}}</ref> His questions are divided into three categories: occupation, ideology, and [[interpersonal relationship]]s. Answers are scored based on the extent to which the individual has explored and the degree to which he has made commitments. The result is classification of the individual into a) identity diffusion in which all children begin, b) Identity Foreclosure in which commitments are made without the exploration of alternatives, c) Moratorium, or the process of exploration, or d) Identity Achievement in which Moratorium has occurred and resulted in commitments.<ref name="ReferenceA">Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 286. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>

Research since reveals self-examination beginning early in adolescence, but identity achievement rarely occurring before age 18.<ref>Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology'', pp.&nbsp;159–187. New York: Wiley.</ref> The freshman year of college influences identity development significantly, but may actually prolong psychosocial moratorium by encouraging reexamination of previous commitments and further exploration of alternate possibilities without encouraging resolution.<ref>Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. (1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto.{{verify source|did this ever get published? Or did the published title change?|date=October 2022}}</ref> For the most part, evidence has supported Erikson's stages: each correlates with the personality traits he originally predicted.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Studies also confirm the impermanence of the stages; there is no final endpoint in identity development.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 288. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>

====Environment and identity====
An adolescent's environment plays a huge role in their identity development.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/> While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies show that the more privileged upbringing people have, the more successfully they develop their identity.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/> The forming of an adolescent's identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This, therefore, has caused various factors to become important during this development.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Furstenberg|first=Frank F.|title=The Sociology of Adolescence and Youth in the 1990s: A Critical Commentary|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|date=November 2000|volume=62|issue=4|pages=896–910|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00896.x}}</ref> So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices,<ref>How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. ''Journal of Early Adolescence''.</ref> to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up in. A child from a more privileged upbringing is exposed to more opportunities and better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime-driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development. Adolescence is a sensitive period in the development process, and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major effect on future decisions. While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/>

====Sexual orientation and identity====
[[Sexual orientation]] has been defined as "an erotic inclination toward people of one or more genders, most often described as sexual or erotic attractions".<ref name="Saewyc">{{cite journal|last=Saewyc|first=E.M.|title=Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation: Development, Health Disparities, Stigma, and Resilience|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|year=2011|volume=21|issue=1|pages=256–272|doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x|pmid=27099454|pmc=4835230}}</ref> In recent years, psychologists have sought to understand how sexual orientation develops during adolescence. Some theorists believe that there are many different possible developmental paths one could take, and that the specific path an individual follows may be determined by their sex, orientation, and when they reached the onset of puberty.<ref name="Saewyc"/>

In 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Troiden|first=R. R.|title=The formation of homosexual identities|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|year=1989|volume=17|pages=43–73|doi=10.1300/J082v17n01_02|pmid=2668403|issue=1–2}}</ref> The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage in sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Floyd|first=Frank J.|author2=Stein, Terry S.|title=Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|year=2002|volume=12|issue=2|pages=167–191|doi=10.1111/1532-7795.00030}}</ref> In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.

In terms of [[sexual identity]], adolescence is when most gay/lesbian and [[transgender youth|transgender]] adolescents begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Many adolescents may choose to [[coming out|come out]] during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of [[Questioning (sexuality and gender)|questioning]] or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences.<ref name="Morrow 2004 91–99">{{cite journal|last=Morrow|first=Deana|title=Social work practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adolescents|journal=Families in Society|date=Jan–Mar 2004|volume=85|issue=1|pages=91–99|doi=10.1606/1044-3894.246|s2cid=144872473}}</ref> A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|last=D'Augelli|first=Anthony|author2=Scott Hershberger|title=Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems|journal=American Journal of Community Psychology|year=1993|volume=21|issue=4|pages=421–448|doi=10.1007/BF00942151|pmid=8192119|s2cid=39475366}}</ref> Coming to terms with and creating a positive [[LGBT]] identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or [[gender identity]] are surrounded by [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.<ref name="Morrow 2004 91–99"/> Because of this, statistically the [[suicide rate]] amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gaylife.about.com/od/gayteens/a/gaysuicide.htm |title=Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning Teen Suicide Statistics – Gay Teen Suicide Statistics |publisher=Gaylife.about.com |date=April 9, 2012 |access-date=September 15, 2012 |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208075811/http://gaylife.about.com/od/gayteens/a/gaysuicide.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Self-esteem====
The final major aspect of identity formation is [[self-esteem]]. Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marmot |first1=Michael |title=Self esteem and health |journal=BMJ |date=13 September 2003 |volume=327 |issue=7415 |pages=574–575 |doi=10.1136/bmj.327.7415.574 |pmid=12969900 |pmc=194072 }}</ref> Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem.<ref name="Valkenburg & Peter 2011"/> Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 270. New York, NY: [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.<ref>Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), ''Psychological perspectives on the self'', Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref> The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 273. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>
Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. Girls suffer from low self-esteem when they fail to win friends' approval or cannot find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority.<ref>"Psychology: The Science of Behaviour" 3rd Canadian Edition</ref><!--citation is inadequately specific e.g. author etc--> As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. Due to the fact that both men and women happen to have a low self-esteem after ending a romantic relationship, they are prone to other symptoms that is caused by this state. Depression and hopelessness are only two of the various symptoms and it is said that women are twice as likely to experience depression and men are three to four times more likely to commit suicide (Mearns, 1991; Ustun & Sartorius, 1995).<ref>Osvelia Deeds, Jeannette Delgado, Miguel Diego, Tiffany Field, and Martha Pelaez (2009). "Adolescence".</ref>

===Relationships===

====In general====
The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in the social development of an adolescent. As an adolescent's social sphere develops rapidly as they distinguish the differences between friends and acquaintances, they often become heavily emotionally invested in friends.<ref name="Adolescent peer pressure">{{cite web|title=Adolescents and Peer Pressure|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=November 6, 2012|url=http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.darnell/peer_pressure|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212114507/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.darnell/peer_pressure|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 12, 2012}}{{self-published inline|date=October 2022}}</ref> This is not harmful; however, if these friends expose an individual to potentially harmful situations, this is an aspect of [[peer pressure]]. Adolescence is a critical period in social development because adolescents can be easily influenced by the people they develop close relationships with. This is the first time individuals can truly make their own decisions, which also makes this a sensitive period. Relationships are vital in the social development of an adolescent due to the extreme influence peers can have over an individual. These relationships become significant because they begin to help the adolescent understand the concept of personalities, how they form and why a person has that specific type of personality. "The use of psychological comparisons could serve both as an index of the growth of an implicit personality theory and as a component process accounting for its creation. In other words, by comparing one person's personality characteristics to another's, we would be setting up the framework for creating a general theory of personality (and,&nbsp;... such a theory would serve as a useful framework for coming to understand specific persons)."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barenboim |first1=Carl |title=The Development of Person Perception in Childhood and Adolescence: From Behavioral Comparisons to Psychological Constructs to Psychological Comparisons |journal=Child Development |date=March 1981 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=129–144 |doi=10.2307/1129222 |jstor=1129222 }}</ref> This can be likened to the use of social comparison in developing one's identity and self-concept, which includes ones personality, and underscores the importance of communication, and thus relationships, in one's development. In social comparison we use reference groups, with respect to both psychological and identity development.<ref>Adler, R.B., Rosenfeld, L.B., Proctor, R.F., & Winder, C. (2012). "Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication, Third Canadian Edition" Oxford University Press. pp. 42–45</ref> These reference groups are the peers of adolescents. This means that who the teen chooses/accepts as their friends and who they communicate with on a frequent basis often makes up their reference groups and can therefore have a huge impact on who they become. Research shows that relationships have the largest affect over the social development of an individual.

====Family====
{{See also|Depression in childhood and adolescence|Sibling relationship}}
[[File:James Collinson - The Sisters.jpg|thumb|180px|''[[The Sisters (Collinson)|The Sisters]]'', by James Collinson]]
Adolescence marks a rapid change in one's role within a family. Young children tend to assert themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early adolescence,<ref>Grotevant, H. (1997). Adolescent development in family contexts. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), ''Handbook of child psychology'' (5th ed.), Vol. 3: ''Social, emotional, and personality development'', pp. 1097–1149. New York: Wiley.</ref> when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. The adolescent faces the task of increasing independence while preserving a caring relationship with his or her parents.<ref name="Rawlins"/> When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent–child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond. Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the adolescent's [[right to privacy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinberg |first1=Laurence |title=We Know Some Things: Parent-Adolescent Relationships in Retrospect and Prospect |journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence |date=March 2001 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1111/1532-7795.00001 |s2cid=54649194 }}</ref> which adolescents may have previously viewed as issues over which their parents had complete authority.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smetana |first1=Judith G. |title=Adolescents' and Parents' Conceptions of Parental Authority |journal=Child Development |date=April 1988 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=321–335 |doi=10.2307/1130313 |pmid=3359858 |jstor=1130313 }}</ref> Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that may be in opposition to parents' values. Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements.<ref name="Teens Today">{{cite web|url=http://www.theantidrug.com/advice/teens-today/teens-and-technology/social-networking.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103162953/http://www.theantidrug.com/advice/teens-today/teens-and-technology/social-networking.aspx|archive-date=November 3, 2012|title=Social Networking|publisher=theantidrug.com|access-date=November 6, 2012}}</ref> While parents never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is doing on social media sites is a challenging subject, due to the increasing amount of predators on social media sites. Many parents have very little knowledge of social networking sites in the first place and this further increases their mistrust. An important challenge for the parent–adolescent relationship is to understand how to enhance the opportunities of online communication while managing its risks.<ref name="Valkenburg & Peter 2011"/> Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values as their parents.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Neil R.|author2=Carlson C.|author3=Donald Heth|title=Psychology the Science of Behaviour, 4th Canadian Edition}}</ref>

During [[childhood]], siblings are a source of conflict and frustration as well as a support system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lempers |first1=Jacques D. |last2=Clark-Lempers |first2=Dania S. |title=Young, middle, and late adolescents' comparisons of the functional importance of five significant relationships |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |date=February 1992 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=53–96 |doi=10.1007/BF01536983 |pmid=24263682 |s2cid=40262274 }}</ref> Adolescence may affect this relationship differently, depending on sibling gender. In same-sex sibling pairs, intimacy increases during early adolescence, then remains stable. Mixed-sex siblings pairs act differently; siblings drift apart during early adolescent years, but experience an increase in intimacy starting at middle adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Ji-Yeon |last2=McHale |first2=Susan M. |last3=Wayne Osgood |first3=D. |last4=Crouter |first4=Ann C. |title=Longitudinal Course and Family Correlates of Sibling Relationships From Childhood Through Adolescence |journal=Child Development |date=November 2006 |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1746–1761 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00971.x |pmid=17107458 }}</ref> Sibling interactions are children's first relational experiences, the ones that shape their social and self-understanding for life.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Marano, Hara Estroff|title=Oh, Brother!|date=July 1, 2010|magazine=Psychology Today|volume=43|issue=4|pages=54–61|publisher=SIRS Researcher|access-date=October 25, 2010|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201007/oh-brother}}</ref> Sustaining positive sibling relations can assist adolescents in a number of ways. Siblings are able to act as peers, and may increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth. Older siblings can give guidance to younger siblings, although the impact of this can be either positive or negative depending on the activity of the older sibling.

A potential important influence on adolescence is change of the family dynamic, specifically divorce. With the divorce rate up to about 50%,<ref>U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, updated and revised from "Families and Work in Transition in 12 Countries,1980–2001," Monthly Labor Review, September 2003</ref> divorce is common and adds to the already great amount of change in adolescence. [[Child custody|Custody]] disputes soon after a divorce often reflect a playing out of control battles and ambivalence between parents. Divorce usually results in less contact between the adolescent and their noncustodial parent.<ref name="Vangelisti">{{Citation |last=Vangelisti |first=A.L. |title= Handbook of family communication |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |place=New Jersey |year=2004}}</ref> In extreme cases of instability and abuse in homes, divorce can have a positive effect on families due to less conflict in the home. However, most research suggests a negative effect on adolescence as well as later development. A recent study found that, compared with peers who grow up in stable post-divorce families, children of divorce who experience additional family transitions during late adolescence, make less progress in their math and social studies performance over time.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Sun Y. |author2=Li Y. | year = 2009 | title = Postdivorce family stability and changes in adolescents' academic performance: A growth-curve model | journal = Journal of Family Issues | volume = 30 | issue = 11| pages = 1527–1555 | doi=10.1177/0192513x09339022 }}</ref> Another recent study put forth a new theory entitled the adolescent epistemological trauma theory,<ref name="Ziemer"/> which posited that traumatic life events such as parental divorce during the formative period of late adolescence portend lifelong effects on adult conflict behavior that can be mitigated by effective behavioral assessment and training.<ref name="Ziemer">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|1018397533}} |last1=Ziemer |first1=Brian S |year=2012 |title=Epistemological Effects of Divorce During Adolescence On Adult Conflict Behavior }}</ref> A parental divorce during childhood or adolescence continues to have a negative effect when a person is in his or her twenties and early thirties. These negative effects include romantic relationships and conflict style, meaning as adults, they are more likely to use the styles of avoidance and competing in conflict management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cherlin |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Chase-Lansdale |first2=P. Lindsay |last3=McRae |first3=Christine |title=Effects of Parental Divorce on Mental Health Throughout the Life Course |journal=American Sociological Review |date=April 1998 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=239–249 |doi=10.2307/2657325 |jstor=2657325 }}</ref>

Despite changing family roles during adolescence, the home environment and parents are still important for the behaviors and choices of adolescents.<ref name="trends">{{cite book |last1=Aufseeser |first1=Dena |last2=Jekielek |first2=Susan |last3=Brown |first3=Brett |title=The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being: Exposure to Positive and Negative Family Influences |date=June 2006 |id={{ERIC|ED510628}} |oclc=652132631 |publisher=Child Trends |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822130027/http://www.childtrends.org/Files/FamilyEnvironmentRB.pdf |archive-date=August 22, 2006 |url=http://www.childtrends.org/Files/FamilyEnvironmentRB.pdf }}</ref> Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting or unprotected [[sexual intercourse]].<ref name = "trends" />
In addition, parents influence the education of adolescence. A study conducted by Adalbjarnardottir and Blondal (2009) showed that adolescents at the age of 14 who identify their parents as authoritative figures are more likely to complete secondary education by the age of 22—as support and encouragement from an authoritative parent motivates the adolescence to complete schooling to avoid disappointing that parent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blondal |first1=Kristjana S. |last2=Adalbjarnardottir |first2=Sigrun |title=Parenting practices and school dropout: a longitudinal study |journal=Adolescence |date=22 December 2009 |volume=44 |issue=176 |pages=729–750 |id={{Gale|A217847446}} |pmid=20432598 }}</ref>

====Peers====
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Peer groups are essential to social and general development. Communication with peers increases significantly during adolescence and peer relationships become more intense than in other stages<ref>Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.D., & Kruk, R. (2004). ''A Child's World: Infancy through Adolescence (First Canadian Ed.)'' McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. pp. 444–451</ref> and more influential to the teen, affecting both the decisions and choices being made.<ref name="Swanson">{{Citation |last1= Swanson |first1= D.P. |last2=Edwards |first2=M.C. |last3=Spencer |first3=M.B. |title=Adolescence: Development during a global era |publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |place= Boston |year=2010}}</ref> High quality friendships may enhance children's development regardless of the characteristics of those friends. As children begin to bond with various people and create friendships, it later helps them when they are adolescent and sets up the framework for adolescence and peer groups.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berndt|first=Thomas J.|title=Friendship Quality and Social Development | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=February 2002|volume=11|issue=1|pages=7–10|doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00157|s2cid=14785379}}</ref>
[[Peer group]]s are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larson R. |author2=Richards M. |year = 1991 | title = Daily companionship in late childhood and early adolescence: Changing developmental contexts | journal = Child Development | volume = 62 | issue = 2| pages = 284–300 | doi = 10.2307/1131003 | pmid = 2055123|jstor=1131003 }}</ref> and a decrease in adult supervision.<ref>Brown, B. (1990). Peer groups. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), ''At the threshold: The developing adolescent'', pp.&nbsp;171–196. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood<ref>Brown, B. (2004). Adolescents' relationships with peers. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology''. New York: Wiley.</ref> and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Eder D | year = 1985 | title = The cycle of popularity: Interpersonal relations among female adolescence | journal = Sociology of Education | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 154–165 | doi = 10.2307/2112416 | jstor = 2112416 }}</ref> It is also common for adolescents to use friends as coping devices in different situations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shin |first1=Huiyoung |last2=Ryan |first2=Allison M. |title=How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment |journal=The Journal of Early Adolescence |date=December 2012 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=851–875 |doi=10.1177/0272431611429944 |s2cid=144031307 }}</ref> A three-factor structure of dealing with friends including avoidance, mastery, and nonchalance has shown that adolescents use friends as coping devices with [[social stress]]es.

Communication within peer groups allows adolescents to explore their feelings and identity as well as develop and evaluate their social skills. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Adolescents choose peer groups based on characteristics similarly found in themselves.<ref name="Rawlins"/> By utilizing these relationships, adolescents become more accepting of who they are becoming. Group norms and values are incorporated into an adolescent's own self-concept.<ref name="Swanson"/> Through developing new communication skills and reflecting upon those of their peers, as well as self-opinions and values, an adolescent can share and express emotions and other concerns without fear of rejection or judgment. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and performance. However, while peers may facilitate social development for one another they may also hinder it. Peers can have negative influences, such as encouraging experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minddisorders.com/Ob-Ps/Peer-groups.html |title=Peer groups – children, therapy, adults, drug, people, skills, effect, women |publisher=Minddisorders.com |access-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18020830|year=2007|last1=Steinberg|first1=L|last2=Monahan|first2=KC|title=Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1531–43|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531|pmc=2779518|journal=Developmental Psychology}}</ref> Further evidence of peers hindering social development has been found in Spanish teenagers, where emotional (rather than solution-based) reactions to problems and emotional instability have been linked with physical aggression against peers.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carlo G. |author2=Mestre M. V. |author3=McGinley M. M. |author4=Samper P. |author5=Tur A. |author6=Sandman D. | year = 2012 | title = The interplay of emotional instability, empathy, and coping on prosocial and aggressive behaviors | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 53 | issue = 5| pages = 675–680 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.022| hdl=10550/77037 |s2cid=2672618 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Both [[Assault|physical]] and [[relational aggression]] are linked to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, especially depression, as is [[social rejection]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=French D. |author2=Conrad J. | year = 2001 | title = School dropout as predicted by peer rejection and antisocial behavior | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 225–244 | doi = 10.1111/1532-7795.00011 }}</ref> Because of this, bullied adolescents often develop problems that lead to further victimization.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodges E, Perry D | year = 1999 | title = Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 76 | issue = 4| pages = 677–685 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.677 | pmid = 10234851 }}</ref> Bullied adolescents are more likely to both continue to be bullied and to bully others in the future.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jose P. E. |author2=Kljakovic M. |author3=Scheib E. |author4=Notter O. | year = 2012 | title = The Joint Development of Traditional Bullying and Victimization With Cyber Bullying and Victimization in Adolescence | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 301–309 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00764.x }}</ref> However, this relationship is less stable in cases of [[cyberbullying]], a relatively new issue among adolescents.

Adolescents tend to associate with "cliques" on a small scale and "crowds" on a larger scale. During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in [[Adolescent cliques|cliques]], exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Despite the common{{According to whom|date=April 2016}} notion that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity. Within a clique of highly athletic male-peers, for example, the clique may create a stronger sense of fidelity and competition. Cliques also have become somewhat a "collective parent", i.e. telling the adolescents what to do and not to do.<ref>Grier, Peter. "The Heart of a High School: Peers As Collective Parent." ''The Christian Science Monitor''. April 24, 2000: n.p. ''SIRS Researcher''. Web. October 25, 2010.</ref> Towards late adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin romantically engaging with one another.<ref name="Connolly J 2004">{{cite journal |author1=Connolly J. |author2=Craig W. |author3=Goldberg A. |author4=Pepler D. | year = 2004 | title = Mixed-gender groups, dating, and romantic relationships in early adolescence | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 185–207 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01402003.x |citeseerx=10.1.1.578.7047 }}</ref> These small friend groups then break down further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented. On a larger scale, adolescents often associate with ''crowds'', groups of individuals who share a common interest or activity. Often, crowd identities may be the basis for stereotyping young people, such as [[Jock (athlete)|jocks]] or [[nerd]]s. In large, multi-ethnic high schools, there are often ethnically determined crowds.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Brown, B. |last2=Subrahmanyam| first2=Kaveri | last3=Greenfield| first3=Patricia|date= Spring 2008|title= Online Communication and Adolescent Relationships|journal= The Future of Children| volume=18| issue=1 |pages=119–146| doi=10.1353/foc.0.0006| pmid= 21338008 |s2cid=10958863}}</ref> Adolescents use online technology to experiment with emerging identities and to broaden their peer groups, such as increasing the amount of friends acquired on Facebook and other social media sites.<ref name="Swanson"/> Some adolescents use these newer channels to enhance relationships with peers however there can be negative uses as well such as cyberbullying, as mentioned previously, and negative impacts on the family.<ref name="Subrahmanyam">{{Cite journal|last1=Subrahmanyam| first1=Kaveri | last2=Greenfield| first2=Patricia|date= Spring 2008|title= Online Communication and Adolescent Relationships|journal= The Future of Children| volume=18| issue=1 |pages=119–146| doi=10.1353/foc.0.0006| pmid=21338008 | s2cid=10958863 }}</ref>

====Romance and sexual activity====
{{Main|Adolescent sexuality}}
[[File:Teen kiss.jpg|thumb|Adolescent couple kissing]]
[[Intimate relationship|Romantic relationships]] tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. By age 15, 53% of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months.<ref name="Carver K. 2003">Carver K., Joyner K., Udry J.R. (2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In ''Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications'', 291–329.</ref> In a 2008 study conducted by [[YouGov]] for [[Channel 4]], 20% of 14−17-year-olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under in the United Kingdom.<ref name="sex stats">{{cite web|url=http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|title=Teen Sex Survey|access-date=September 11, 2008|publisher=Channel 4|year=2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912225248/http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|archive-date=September 12, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2002 American study found that those aged 15–44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17.0 for males and 17.3 for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newstrategist.com/productdetails/Sex.SamplePgs.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061120093911/http://www.newstrategist.com/productdetails/Sex.SamplePgs.pdf|archive-date=November 20, 2006 |title=Seventeen Is the Average Age at First Sexual Intercourse, ''American Sexual Behavior'', p.4-5 |url-status=usurped|access-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can be explained by [[sexual maturity|sexual maturation]] and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g. caregiving, appropriate attachment), although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence.<ref>Allen, J., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), ''Handbook of attachment theory and research.'' New York: Guilford Press.</ref> Long-term relationships allow adolescents to gain the skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life<ref>Madsen S., Collins W. A. (2005). Differential predictions of young adult romantic
relationships from transitory vs. longer romantic experiences during adolescence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development'', Atlanta, GA.</ref> and develop feelings of self-worth. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood<ref>Seiffge-Krenke I., Lang J. (2002). Forming and maintaining romantic relations
from early adolescence to young adulthood: evidence of a developmental sequence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence'', 19th, New Orleans, LA.</ref> and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence, and social competence.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pearce M. J. |author2=Boergers J. |author3=Prinstein M.J. |year = 2002 | title = Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships | journal = Obesity Research | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 386–93 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2002.53 | pmid = 12006638 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Zimmer-Gembeck M.J. |author2=Siebenbruner J. |author3=Collins W.A. | year = 2004 | title = A prospective study of intraindividual and peer influences on adolescents' heterosexual romantic and sexual behavior | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 33 | issue = 4| pages = 381–394 | doi = 10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028891.16654.2c | pmid = 15162084 |s2cid=1054833 }}</ref> For example, an adolescent with positive self-confidence is likely to consider themselves a more successful partner, whereas negative experiences may lead to low confidence as a romantic partner.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Furman |first1=Wyndol |last2=Shaffer |first2=Laura |chapter=The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development |pages=3–22 |chapter-url=https://liberalarts.du.edu/sites/default/files/2021-04/furman-shaffer-2003.pdf |editor1-last=Florsheim |editor1-first=Paul |title=Adolescent Romantic Relations and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications |date=2003 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-135-64863-3 }}</ref> Adolescents often date within their demographic in regards to race, ethnicity, popularity, and physical attractiveness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Simon | first1 = V. A. | last2 = Aikins | first2 = J. W. | last3 = Prinstein | first3 = M. J. | year = 2008 | title = Romantic partner selection and socialization during early adolescence | journal = Child Development | volume =  79| issue = 6| pages = 1676–92 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01218.x | pmid = 19037942 | pmc = 3420070 }}</ref> However, there are traits in which certain individuals, particularly adolescent girls, seek diversity. While most adolescents date people approximately their own age, boys typically date partners the same age or younger; girls typically date partners the same age or older.<ref name="Carver K. 2003"/>

Some researchers are now focusing on learning about how adolescents view their own relationships and sexuality; they want to move away from a research point of view that focuses on the problems associated with adolescent sexuality.{{why|This sounds pov, in itself without an explanation|date=April 2014}} College Professor Lucia O'Sullivan and her colleagues found that there were no significant gender differences in the relationship events adolescent boys and girls from grades 7–12 reported.<ref name="O'Sullivan">{{cite journal |author = O'Sullivan L. F. |author2=Cheng M. |author3=Brooks-Gunn J. |author4=Mantsun K. Harris | year = 2007 | title = I wanna hold your hand: The progression of social, romantic and sexual events in adolescent relationships | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 39 | issue = 2| pages = 100–107 | doi = 10.1363/3910007 | pmid = 17565623 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/gb19ff89v }}</ref> Most teens said they had kissed their partners, held hands with them, thought of themselves as being a couple and told people they were in a relationship. This means that private thoughts about the relationship as well as public recognition of the relationship were both important to the adolescents in the sample. Sexual events (such as sexual touching, sexual intercourse) were less common than romantic events (holding hands) and social events (being with one's partner in a group setting). The researchers state that these results are important because the results focus on the more positive aspects of adolescents and their social and romantic interactions rather than focusing on sexual behavior and its consequences.<ref name="O'Sullivan" />

Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which manifests in social interactions as well. While adolescents may engage in [[casual sex|casual sexual encounters]] (often referred to as hookups), most sexual experience during this period of development takes place within romantic relationships.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Manning W. |author2=Longmore M. |author3=Giordano P. | year = 2000 | title = The relationship context of contraceptive use at first intercourse | url = http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3210400.html| journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 104–110 | doi = 10.2307/2648158 | pmid = 10894255 |jstor=2648158 }}</ref> Adolescents can use technologies and social media to seek out romantic relationships as they feel it is a safe place to try out dating and identity exploration. From these social media encounters, a further relationship may begin.<ref name="Swanson"/> Kissing, hand holding, and hugging signify satisfaction and commitment. Among young adolescents, "heavy" sexual activity, marked by genital stimulation, is often associated with violence, depression, and poor relationship quality.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Welsh D. P. |author2=Haugen P. T. |author3=Widman L. |author4=Darling N. |author5=Grello C. M. | year = 2005 | title = Kissing is good: a developmental investigation of sexuality in adolescent romantic couples | journal = Sexuality Research and Social Policy | volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 32–41 | doi = 10.1525/srsp.2005.2.4.32 |s2cid=144037962 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Trish |last2=Connolly |first2=Jennifer |last3=Cribbie |first3=Robert |title=Light and Heavy Heterosexual Activities of Young Canadian Adolescents: Normative Patterns and Differential Predictors |journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence |date=March 2008 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=145–172 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00554.x |hdl=10315/34629 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This effect does not hold true for sexual activity in late adolescence that takes place within a romantic relationship.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Grello C. M. |author2=Welsh D. P. |author3=Harper MS |author4=Dickson J. | year = 2003 | title = Dating and sexual relationship trajectories and adolescent functioning | journal = Adolescent & Family Health | volume = 3 | pages = 103–12 }}</ref> Some research suggest that there are genetic causes of early sexual activity that are also risk factors for [[juvenile delinquency|delinquency]], suggesting that there is a group who are at risk for both early sexual activity and emotional distress. For older adolescents, though, sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships was actually correlated with lower levels of deviant behavior after controlling for genetic risks, as opposed to sex outside of a relationship (hook-ups).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Harden K. |author2=Mendle J. | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent sexual activity and the development of delinquent behavior: The role of relationship context | journal = Journal of Youth and Adolescence | volume = 40 | issue = 7| pages = 825–838 | doi = 10.1007/s10964-010-9601-y |pmid=21069562 |s2cid=11855204 }}</ref>

[[Dating abuse|Dating violence]] can occur within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 12–25% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Halpern C. |author2=Oslak S. |author3=Young M. |author4=Martin S. |author5=Kupper L. | year = 2001 | title = Partner violence among adolescents in opposite-sex romantic: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 91 | issue = 10| pages = 1679–1685 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1679 | pmid = 11574335 | pmc = 1446854 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Halpern C. |author2=Young M. |author3=Waller M. |author4=Martin S. |author5=Kupper L. | year = 2004 | title = Prevalence of partner violence in same-sex romantic and sexual relationships in a national sample of adolescents | journal = Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 124–131 | pmid = 15261641 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.09.003 }}</ref><ref name="Collins2009">{{cite journal |author1=Collins W. A. |author2=Welsh D. P. |author3=Furman W. | year = 2009 | title = Adolescent romantic relationships | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 60 | issue = 1| pages = 631–652 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163459 | pmid = 19035830 |s2cid=207671931 }}</ref>

Female adolescents from minority populations are at increased risk for [[intimate partner violence]] (IPV). Recent research findings suggest that a substantial portion of young urban females are at high risk for being victims of multiple forms of IPV. Practitioners diagnosing depression among urban minority teens should assess for both physical and non-physical forms of IPV, and early detection can help to identify youths in need of intervention and care.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Teitelman | first1 = AM | last2 = Ratcliffe | first2 = SJ | last3 = McDonald | first3 = CC | last4 = Brawner | first4 = BM | last5 = Sullivan | first5 = C | year = 2011 | title = Relationships between physical and non-physical forms of intimate partner violence and depression among urban minority adolescent females | journal = Child and Adolescent Mental Health | volume = 16 | issue = 2| pages = 92–100 | doi = 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2010.00572.x | pmid = 21617762 | pmc = 3100197 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Volpe | first1 = EM | last2 = Morales-Aleman | first2 = MM | last3 = Teitelman | first3 = AM | year = 2014 | title = Urban adolescent girls' perspectives on romantic relationships: Initiation, involvement, negotiation and conflict | journal = Issues in Mental Health Nursing | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 776–790 | doi = 10.3109/01612840.2014.910582 | pmid = 25259641 | pmc = 4670570 }}</ref> Similarly to adult victims, adolescent victims do not readily disclose abuse, and may seek out medical care for problems not directly related to incidences of IPV. Therefore, screening should be a routine part of medical treatment for adolescents regardless of chief complaint. Many adults discount instances of IPV in adolescents or believe they do not occur because relationships at young ages are viewed as "puppy love," however, it is crucial that adults take IPV in adolescents seriously even though often policy falls behind.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Kristie A. |last2=Sorenson |first2=Susan B. |author2-link=Susan Sorenson|last3=Joshi |first3=Manisha |title=Police-Documented Incidents of Intimate Partner Violence Among Young Women |journal=Journal of Women's Health |date=June 2010 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1079–1087 |doi=10.1089/jwh.2009.1612 |pmid=20482254 }}</ref>

In contemporary society, adolescents also face some risks as their sexuality begins to transform. While some of these, such as emotional distress (fear of abuse or exploitation) and [[sexually transmitted disease|sexually transmitted infections]]/diseases (STIs/STDs), including [[HIV/AIDS]], are not necessarily inherent to adolescence, others such as [[teenage pregnancy]] (through non-use or failure of contraceptives) are seen as social problems in most western societies. One in four sexually active teenagers will contract an STI.<ref name="Mulrine, A 2010">{{cite magazine |last1=Mulrine |first1=A |date=27 May 2002 |title=Risky business: teens are having more sex—and getting diseases. But is telling them to wait the answer? |magazine=US News and World Report |pages=42–49 }}</ref> Adolescents in the United States often chose "anything but intercourse" for sexual activity because they mistakenly believe it reduces the risk of STIs. Across the country, clinicians report rising diagnoses of [[Herpes simplex|herpes]] and [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV), which can cause genital warts, and is now thought to affect 15 percent of the teen population. Girls 15 to 19 have higher rates of gonorrhea than any other age group. One-quarter of all new HIV cases occur in those under the age of 21.<ref name="Mulrine, A 2010"/> Multrine also states in her article that according to a March survey by the [[Kaiser Family Foundation]], eighty-one percent of parents want schools to discuss the use of condoms and contraception with their children. They also believe students should be able to be tested for STIs. Furthermore, teachers want to address such topics with their students. But, although 9 in 10 [[sex education]] instructors across the country believe that students should be taught about contraceptives in school, over one quarter report receiving explicit instructions from school boards and administrators not to do so. According to anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the turmoil found in adolescence in Western society has a cultural rather than a physical cause; they reported that societies where young women engaged in free sexual activity had no such adolescent turmoil.