Editing Semantics (section)

=== Others ===
[[Conceptual semantics]] shares with cognitive semantics the idea of studying linguistic meaning from a psychological perspective by examining how humans conceptualize and experience the world. It holds that meaning is not about the objects to which expressions refer but about the cognitive structure of human concepts that connect thought, perception, and action. Conceptual semantics differs from cognitive semantics by introducing a strict distinction between meaning and syntax and by relying on various formal devices to explore the relation between meaning and cognition.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=261–263}} | {{harvnb|Jackendoff|2011|p=688}} }}</ref>

[[Computational semantics]] examines how the meaning of natural language expressions can be represented and processed on computers.<ref name="auto">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} | {{harvnb|Bunt|Muskens|1999|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 1–2]}} }}</ref> It often relies on the insights of formal semantics and applies them to problems that can be computationally solved.<ref>{{harvnb|Bunt|Muskens|1999|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 1–2]}}</ref> Some of its key problems include computing the meaning of complex expressions by analyzing their parts, handling ambiguity, vagueness, and context-dependence, and using the extracted information in [[automatic reasoning]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} | {{harvnb|Bunt|Muskens|1999|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Erk|2018|loc=Summary}} }}</ref> It forms part of [[computational linguistics]], [[artificial intelligence]], and [[cognitive science]].<ref name="auto"/> Its applications include [[machine learning]] and [[machine translation]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Erk|2018|loc=Summary}} | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} }}</ref>

Cultural semantics studies the relation between linguistic meaning and culture. It compares conceptual structures in different languages and is interested in how meanings evolve and change because of cultural phenomena associated with [[politics]], religion, and [[customs]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zhao|2023|loc=[https://brill.com/display/book/9789004535183/front-10.xml Preface]}}</ref> For example, address practices encode cultural values and social hierarchies, as in the difference of politeness of expressions like ''{{lang|es|tu}}'' and ''{{lang|es|usted}}'' in Spanish or ''{{lang|de|du}}'' and ''{{lang|de|Sie}}'' in German in contrast to English, which lacks [[T–V distinction|these distinctions]] and uses the pronoun ''you'' in either case.<ref>{{harvnb|Farese|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NsllDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3]}}</ref> Closely related fields are intercultural semantics, cross-cultural semantics, and comparative semantics.<ref>{{harvnb|Peeters|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MsIFbHm0_lcC&pg=PT25 25]}}</ref>

Pragmatic semantics studies how the meaning of an expression is shaped by the situation in which it is used. It is based on the idea that communicative meaning is usually context-sensitive and depends on who participates in the exchange, what information they share, and what their [[intention]]s and background assumptions are. It focuses on communicative actions, of which linguistic expressions only form one part. Some theorists include these topics within the scope of semantics while others consider them part of the distinct discipline of pragmatics.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Márquez|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TkKVwYcG8Q4C&pg=PA149 149]}} | {{harvnb|Bublitz|Norrick|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XgYP7AKeoKwC&pg=PA215 215–216]}} }}</ref>