Editing Scythians (section)

===West Asia===
During the second half of the 8th century BC and the 7th century BC, the equestrian steppe nomads from Ciscaucasia expanded to the south into West Asia,{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=60}} beginning with the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=83}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=95-96}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=102}} The involvement of the steppe nomads in [[West Asia]] happened in the context of the growth of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], which had expanded from its core region of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] valleys to dominate a large territory in West Asia.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65-66}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=107}} Surrounding the Neo-Assyrian Empire were several smaller polities: [[Phrygia]] and [[Lydia]] in Anatolia; [[Babylon]] and [[Elam]] in the south; [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] in the southwest; [[Urartu]] in the north; the weaker states of [[Ellipi]] and [[Mannaea|Mannai]] in the east; and the city-states of the [[Medes]].{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=107}} Local border rulers negotiated for their own interests by vacillating between these various rival great powers.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65-66}}

This state of permanent [[social disruption]] caused by the rivalries of the great powers of West Asia proved to be an attractive source of opportunities for the [[Eurasian nomads|steppe nomads]];{{sfn|Grayson|1991a|p=128}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=31}} and so their aristocrats led their followers southwards across the Caucasus Mountains.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} Thus, the Scythians and Cimmerians became active in West Asia in the 7th century BC,{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=99}} where they would vacillate between supporting either the Neo-Assyrian Empire or other local powers, and serve these as mercenaries, depending on what they considered to be in their interests.{{sfn|Grayson|1991a|p=128}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=69}}{{sfn|Kõiv|2022|p=265}} Some small groups of steppe nomads from Ciscaucasia might have acted since the 9th century BC in West Asia, which laid the ground for the later large scale movement of the Cimmerians and Scythians there.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=61}} There appears to have been very little direct connection between the migrations of the Cimmerians and the Scythians.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=113}} The Scythians became active in West Asia after arriving in Transcaucasia around {{c.|700 BC}}.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=96}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|p=99}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=103}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}}}</ref> These nonetheless never lost contact with the core Scythian kingdom located in the Ciscaucasian Steppe.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}

[[File:Gold scythian belt title from Mingachevir, Azerbaijan.JPG|thumb|left|Gold Scythian belt title, [[Mingachevir|Mingəçevir]] (ancient [[Iškuza|Scythian kingdom]]), [[Azerbaijan]], 7th-4th century BC{{sfn|Baumer|2021|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_W01EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 98]}}{{sfn|Manoledakis|2021|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=An0vEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]}}]]
Once they had finally crossed into West Asia, the Scythians settled in eastern Transcaucasia and the northwest Iranian plateau,<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=19}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=23}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=62}}}}</ref> in the steppes of what is presently Azerbaijan, which became their centre operations until {{c.|600 BC}},{{sfn|Sulimirski|1954|p=282}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}} and this part of Transcaucasia settled by the Scythians consequently became known in the Akkadian sources from Mesopotamia as the "land of the Scythians" ({{lang|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀}}}}, {{translit|akk-x-neoassyr|māt Iškuzaya}}) after them.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=62}} Unlike the Cimmerians, the Scythians in West Asia remained organised into a single polity.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65}} Once the Scythians had expanded into Transcaucasia, craftsmen from this region also became their suppliers.{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=16}}

====Initial activities in West Asia====
The Scythian and Cimmerian movements into Anatolia and the Iranian Plateau would act as catalysts for the adoption of Eurasian nomadic military and equestrian equipments by various West Asian states:{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=69}} it was during the 7th and 6th centuries BCE that "Scythian-type" socketed arrowheads and [[Recurve bow|sigmoid bows]] ideal for use by mounted warriors were adopted throughout West Asia.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=135}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=92}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=69}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}}}</ref>

The Mannaean king Aḫšeri ({{reign|{{c.|675}}|{{c.|650 BC}}}}) welcomed the Cimmerians and the Scythians as useful allies against the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=747}} During the period corresponding to the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king [[Esarhaddon]] ({{reign|681|669 BC}}), the Scythians were active in association with Mannai and Media,{{sfn|Ivantchik|1999a|p=508}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2006|p=148}} with their first ever recorded mention from the Neo-Assyrian records of {{c.|680 BC}}.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=99}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=107}} Around this time, Aḫšēri was hindering operations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire between its own territory and Mannai.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748}} During these attacks, the Scythians were able to reach and attack distant Neo-Assyrian provinces,<ref>{{unbulleted list|{{harvnb|Barnett|1982|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|pp=85–87}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=747–748}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}}}</ref> and on one occasion core territories.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=87}}{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748-749}}

These forces were defeated some time between {{c.|680}} and {{c.|677 BC}} by Esarhaddon, who carried out a retaliatory campaign which reached deep into Median territory.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=103-104}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}} [[Išpakāya]], the Scythians' first knowwn king, was killed during this campaign, and he was succeeded by [[Bartatua]],<ref>{{unbulleted list|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=8}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1999c|p=517}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993b|pp=326–327}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|p=749}}}}</ref> with whom Esarhaddon might have immediately initiated negotiations.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=103}} By 672 BC, Bartatua had asked for the hand of the eldest daughter of Esarhaddon, the Neo-Assyrian princess [[Šērūʾa-ēṭirat]], and promised to form an alliance treaty with the Neo-Assyrian Empire in an act of careful diplomacy.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} Bartatua's marriage to Šērūʾa-ēṭirat required that he would pledge allegiance to Assyria as a [[vassal]], which made the Scythian presence in West Asia a nominal extension of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=172}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=565}} Henceforth, the Scythian kingdom remained a Neo-Assyrian ally.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=567}}

The eastern Cimmerians soon left the Iranian Plateau and retreated westwards into Anatolia.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=752-}} Although Mannai had been powerful under Aḫšeri, this power had depended on his alliance with the Cimmerians and Scythians. Their absence allowed Esarhaddon's successor [[Ashurbanipal]] ({{reign|669|631 BC}}) to carry out a campaign against Mannai between 660 and 659 BC.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=132}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=115}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=71}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=752–754}}}}</ref> Bartatua, acting as an intermediary,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=116}} annexed Mannai into the Scythian kingdom.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=28}} Following this, the centre of Scythian power in West Asia shifted to [[Sakez]] near [[Lake Urmia]],{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=132}}{{sfn|Barnett|1991|p=359}} where fertile pastures allowed the Scythians to rea large herds of horses.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Loehr|1955|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=132}}|{{harvnb|Barnett|1991|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=563}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=33}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=33}}}}</ref>

====West Asian influences on the Scythians====
The marital alliance, as well as the proximity of the Scythians to Assyrian-influenced states, placed the Scythians under the strong influence of [[Assyria#Culture|Assyrian culture]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=565}} Scythian culture and art absorbed various West Asian elements;{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=32}} Scythian dress and armour from this time, including in Cirscaucasia, reflect heavy influences from West Asia and the Iranian Plateau on Scythian culture during this period.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}|{{harvnb|Petrenko|1995|p=16}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=109}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=115}}}}</ref>

Scythian rulers began emulating West Asian kings by using [[luxury goods]] as status markers.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=100}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=31}}{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=18}} the spoils acquired by the Scythians as diplomatic presents or as plunder was used to enhance their status back in the Ciscaucasian Steppe.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} In addition, artistic concepts also enhanced the range of the craftsmen serving the Scythian aristocracy:{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=115}} the Scythians had absorbed West Asian tastes and customs{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=37}} such as the concept of the divine origin of royal power,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=569}} and as their material culture was absorbing West Asian elements, so was their art absorbing West Asian artistic modes of representing these.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=100}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=32}}

[[File:KulObaTreasure.jpg|thumb|The Scythian [[Snake-Legged Goddess]] and other artifacts, from [[Kul-Oba]].]]
Even West Asian horses were imported to Ciscaucasia.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} It was also only when the Scythians expanded into West Asia that they became acquainted with iron smelting and forging, before which they were still a Bronze Age society until the late 8th century BC.{{sfn|Jettmar|1971|p=8}} The Scythians also borrowed the use of the [[Chariot|war chariots]]{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=16}} and of [[scale armour]] from West Asians,{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=156}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=581}} and Scythian warriors themselves obtained [[iron]] weapons and military experience during their stay in West Asia.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=174}} Within the [[Scythian religion]], the goddess [[Artimpasa]] and the [[Snake-Legged Goddess]] were significantly influenced by the Mesopotamian and Syro-Canaanite religions.{{sfn|Ustinova|1999|pages=79-80}} 

==== Reign of Madyes ====
[[File:Kimerian.jpg|thumb|right|An Assyrian relief depicting Cimmerian mounted warriors]]
Bartatua was succeeded by his son with Šērūʾa-ēṭirat,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=565}} [[Madyes]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1999a|pp=508–509}} In 652 BC, Ashurbanipal's eldest brother [[Šamaš-šuma-ukin]], the [[List of kings of Babylon|king of Babylon]], rebelled against him.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=117}} although Ashurbanipal was able to suppress the Babylonian rebellion by 648 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was worn out by this crisis.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|pp=71–72}} Madyes helped Ashurbanipal repress the revolt by imposing Scythian hegemony on Media, which marked the beginning of a nearly 30-year long period of Scythian hegemony in West Asia.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Barnett|1991|p=359}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|pp=34, 113}}}}</ref>

[[File:Britishmuseumbintepehorserelief.jpg|thumb|A relief depicting mounted Lydian warriors on slab of marble from a tomb]]
During the 7th century BC, the bulk of the Cimmerians were operating in Anatolia.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=95}} The disturbances they caused led to many of the rulers of this region to break away from Neo-Assyrian overlordship, by the time of Ashurbanipal.{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=132}}{{sfn|Grayson|1991c|p=145}} In 644 BC, the Cimmerians and their allies the [[Treres]] defeated the [[Lydians]] and captured their capital city of [[Sardis]].{{sfn|Spalinger|1978a|pp=405-407}} Despite this and other setbacks, the Lydian kingdom was able to grow in power.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=74}} Around {{c.|635 BC}},{{sfn|Spalinger|1978a|p=408}} and with Neo-Assyrian approval,{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=9}} the Scythians under Madyes conquered Urartu,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}{{sfn|Bouzek|2001|p=39}} entered Central Anatolia{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=129}} and defeated the Cimmerians alongside the Lydians.{{sfn|Parzinger|2004|p=23-24}}

Scythian power in West Asia thus reached its peak under Madyes, with the territories ruled by the Scythian kingdom extending from the Halys river in Anatolia in the west to the Caspian Sea and the eastern borders of Media in the east, and from Transcaucasia in the north to the northern borders of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the south.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1954|p=294}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=134}}|{{harvnb|Vaggione|1973|pp=528–529}}|{{harvnb|Spalinger|1978a|p=408}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2001|p=327}}}}</ref> Meanwhile, the new Lydian Empire became the dominant power of Anatolia.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=95}}

====Decline in West Asia====
[[File:Qyzqapan tomb relief 2.jpg|thumb|right|The Median king [[Cyaxares]]]]
The Neo-Assyrian Empire began unravelling after the death of Ashurbanipal because of civil wars under his successors [[Aššur-etil-ilāni]] ({{reign|631|627 BC}}) and [[Sîn-šar-iškun]] ({{reign|627|612 BC}}).{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=72-74}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} In 625 BC, the Median king [[Cyaxares]] invited the Scythian leaders to a feast, where he assassinated them all, thus overthrowing the Assyro-Scythian yoke over the Medes.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|pp=113–114}} Cyaxares was able to combine Scythian and Neo-Assyrian military practices to transform Media into the dominant power of the Iranian Plateau.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=122}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=73}} Other vassals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire started breaking away.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=73}}

The Scythians nevertheless took advantage of the temporary power vacuum to raid into the [[Levant]] some time between {{c.|626}} and {{c.|616 BC}}.{{sfn|Spalinger|1978b|p=49-50}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|1999a|p=516}} It is unknown whether this raid damaged the hold of the Neo-Assyrian Empire on its western provinces.{{sfn|Hawkins|1991|p=452-453}} The raid reached as far south as [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]],{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=28}} but it did not affect the [[kingdom of Judah]].{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=134}} It reached the borders of the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Saite Egyptian kingdom]], after which the pharaoh [[Psamtik I]] met them and convinced them to turn back by offering them gifts.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|pp=130–134}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=21}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|pp=34, 113}}}}</ref> The Scythians sacked several cities in Palestine while retreating.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} After this, Scythian activities became limited to the eastern borderlands of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the importation of West Asian goods into the Ciscaucasian steppe.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}

By 615, the Scythian kingdom was operating as an ally of Cyaxares in [[Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire|his war against the Neo-Assyrian Empire]], possibly out of necessity.{{sfn|Oates|1991|p=180}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=567}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=28}} The Scythian kingdom supported the Medo-Babylonian conquests [[Fall of Assur|of Aššur]] in 614 BC, [[Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)|of Nineveh]] in 612 BC, and of the last Neo-Assyrian remnants [[Fall of Harran|at Ḫarran]] in 610 BC, which permanently destroyed the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Loehr|1955|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=33}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=21}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=74}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=39}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}}}}</ref>

By the {{c.|590s BC}}, the ascending Median Empire of Cyaxares annexed Urartu,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=124}}{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=33}} after having already annexed Mannai in 616 BC.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=122}} This rise of Median power forced the Scythian kingdom to leave West Asia and retreat northward into the Ciscaucasian Steppe.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=9}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=133}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=119}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=38}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1995|p=28}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=107}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=115}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=130}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=22}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=24}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=113}}}}</ref> Complex relations nevertheless continued to exist between the Median and Scythian kingdoms located.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=116}} 

Some splinter Scythian groups remained in eastern Transcaucasia and did not retreat to the north.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=108}} The area where they lived was called {{translit|xme|Sakašayana}} ({{lit|land inhabited by the Saka (that is, by Scythians)}}) by the Medes; this name was later recorded as [[Sakasene|{{transliteration|grc|Sakasēnē}}]] ({{lang|grc|Σακασηνη}}) by [[Ptolemy]].{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=100}} Later Graeco-Roman sources claimed that these Scythians left the Median kingdom and fled into the Lydian Empire, beginning [[Lydo-Median War|a conflict between Lydia and Media]]:{{sfn|Parzinger|2004|p=21}} These Scythians who had remained in West Asia had been completely assimilated into Median society and state by the mid-6th century BC.{{sfn|Young|1988a|p=20}}{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=8}}