Editing Science education (section)

===United States===
[[File:Moseley Hall Chemistry Lab.jpg|thumb|A university chemistry lab in the United States]]
In many U.S. states, [[K-12]] educators must adhere to rigid standards or [[Conceptual framework|frameworks]] of what content is to be taught to which age groups. This often leads teachers to rush to "cover" the material, without truly "teaching" it. In addition, the ''process'' of science, including such elements as the [[scientific method]] and [[critical thinking]], is often overlooked. This emphasis can produce students who pass [[Standardized test#United States|standardized tests]] without having developed complex problem solving skills.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Does Waldorf Offer a Viable Form of Science Education?|url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/j/jelinekd/Publications/WaldorfScience.pdf|last=Jelinek|first=David|date=2003|website=csus.edu}}</ref> Although at the college level American science education tends to be less regulated, it is actually more rigorous, with teachers and professors fitting more content into the same time period.<ref name="Glavin">{{cite web|url=http://www.k12academics.com/education-subjects/science-education/united-states#.VzpsDk-qqko|title=United States {{!}} K12 Academics|last=Glavin|first=Chris|date=2014-02-06|website=k12academics.com|access-date=2016-05-17}}</ref>

In 1996, the [[U.S. National Academy of Sciences]] of the [[U.S. National Academies]] produced the [[National Science Education Standards]], which is available online for free in multiple forms. Its focus on [[inquiry-based science]], based on the theory of [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivism]] rather than on [[direct instruction]] of facts and methods, remains controversial.<ref name="Glavin" /> Some research suggests that it is more effective as a model for teaching science. <blockquote>"The Standards call for more than 'science as process,' in which students learn such skills as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills."<ref>{{cite book|last=National Research Council|first=National Academy of Sciences|title=National Science Education Standards|url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4962&page=2|series=Science Teaching Standards|publisher=National Academy Press|date=December 1995|doi=10.17226/4962|isbn=978-0-309-05326-6}}</ref></blockquote>Concern about science education and science standards has often been driven by worries that American students, and even teachers,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Fuchs|first1= T|last2= Sonnert|first2= G|last3= Scott|first3= S|last4= Sadler|first4= P|last5=Chen | first5 = Chen | date= 2021|title=Preparation and Motivation of High School Students Who Want to Become Science or Mathematics Teachers |journal=Journal of Science Teacher Education |volume= 33|issue= |pages=83–106 |doi=10.1080/1046560X.2021.1908658|s2cid= 237924144|doi-access= free}}</ref> lag behind their peers in [[international rankings]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mullis, I.V.S. |author2=Martin, M.O. |author3=Gonzalez, E.J. |author4=Chrostowski, S.J. |title=TIMSS 2003 International Mathematics Report: Findings from IEA's Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study at the Fourth and Eighth Grades |publisher=TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-8899-3834-9 |url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED494650&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED494650}}</ref> One notable example was the wave of [[education reforms]] implemented after the [[Soviet Union]] launched its [[Sputnik]] [[satellite]] in 1957.<ref>{{cite web |author=Rutherford, F.J. |title=Sputnik and Science Education |year=1997 |work=Reflecting on Sputnik: Linking the Past, Present, and Future of Educational Reform |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www.nationalacademies.org/sputnik/ruther1.htm}}</ref> The first and most prominent of these reforms was led by the [[Physical Science Study Committee]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. In recent years, business leaders such as Microsoft Chairman [[Bill Gates]] have called for more emphasis on science education, saying the United States risks losing its economic edge.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Citing "Critical Situation" in Science and Math, Business Groups Urge Approval of New National Agenda for Innovation |date=27 July 2005 |publisher=Business Roundtable |url=http://www.businessroundtable.org/newsroom/Document.aspx?qs=5876BF807822B0F1AD1448722FB51711FCF50C8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208164558/http://www.businessroundtable.org/newsroom/Document.aspx?qs=5876BF807822B0F1AD1448722FB51711FCF50C8 |archive-date=2007-12-08 |url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite web |author=Borland, J. |title=Gates: Get U.S. schools in order |date=2 May 2005 |work=CNET News |url=http://news.cnet.com/Gates-Get-U.S.-schools-in-order/2100-1022_3-5692845.html}}</ref> To this end, Tapping America's Potential is an organization aimed at getting more students to graduate with science, technology, engineering and mathematics degrees.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tapping America's Potential |url=http://www.tapcoalition.org/}}</ref> Public opinion surveys, however, indicate most U.S. parents are complacent about science education and that their level of concern has actually declined in recent years.<ref>[http://www.publicagenda.org/research/pdfs/rc0601.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614211608/http://www.publicagenda.org/research/pdfs/rc0601.pdf|date=14 June 2006}}</ref>

Furthermore, in the recent National Curriculum Survey conducted by ACT, researchers uncovered a possible disconnect among science educators.  "Both middle school/junior high school teachers and post secondary science instructors rate(d) process/inquiry skills as more important than advanced science content topics; high school teachers rate them in exactly the opposite order." Perhaps more communication among educators at the different grade levels in necessary to ensure common goals for students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.act.org/research/policymakers/pdf/NationalCurriculumSurvey2009.pdf |title=National Research Leader in College and Workforce Readiness |publisher=ACT |date=2009 |access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref>

====2012 science education framework====

According to a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the fields of science, technology, and education hold a paramount place in the modern world, but there are not enough workers in the United States entering the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professions. In 2012 the National Academy of Sciences Committee on a Conceptual Framework for New K-12 Science Education Standards developed a guiding framework to standardize K-12 science education with the goal of organizing science education systematically across the K-12 years. Titled ''A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas'', the publication promotes standardizing K-12 science education in the United States. It emphasizes science educators to focus on a "limited number of disciplinary core ideas and crosscutting concepts, be designed so that students continually build on and revise their knowledge and abilities over multiple years, and support the integration of such knowledge and abilities with the practices needed to engage in scientific inquiry and engineering design."<ref name=":1">[http://research.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/gradresearch.cc.lehigh.edu/files/documents/VPRO/Workshops/NRC%20Framework%20for%20K.12%20Science%20Education.pdf A Framework For K-12 Science Education]</ref>

The report says that in the 21st century Americans need science education in order to engage in and "systematically investigate issues related to their personal and community priorities," as well as to reason scientifically and know how to apply science knowledge. The committee that designed this new framework sees this imperative as a matter of [[educational equity]] to the diverse set of schoolchildren. Getting more diverse students into [[STEM fields|STEM education]] is a matter of social justice as seen by the committee.<ref>A Framework For K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas</ref>

====2013 Next Generation Science Standards====

In 2013 a new standards for science education were released that update the national standards released in 1996. Developed by 26 state governments and national organizations of scientists and science teachers, the guidelines, called the [[Next Generation Science Standards]], are intended to "combat widespread scientific ignorance, to standardize teaching among states, and to raise the number of high school graduates who choose scientific and technical majors in college...." Included are guidelines for teaching students about topics such as climate change and evolution. An emphasis is teaching the scientific process so that students have a better understanding of the methods of science and can critically evaluate scientific evidence. Organizations that contributed to developing the standards include the [[National Science Teachers Association]], the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]], the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]], and Achieve, a nonprofit organization that was also involved in developing math and English standards.<ref>{{cite news |first=Justin |last=Gillis |title=New Guidelines Call for Broad Changes in Science Education |newspaper=The New York Times |date=9 April 2013 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/10/science/panel-calls-for-broad-changes-in-science-education.html |access-date=22 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Next Generation Science Standards |url=http://www.nextgenscience.org/next-generation-science-standards |access-date=23 April 2013}}</ref>

==== Next Generation Science Standards ====
Science education curriculum in the [[United States]] is outlined by the [[Next Generation Science Standards]] (NGSS) which were released in April 2013. The purpose of the NGSS is to establish a standardized Kindergarten to 12th Grade science curriculum. These standards were instituted in hopes that they would reform the past science education system, and foster higher student achievement through improved curriculum and teacher development. The Next Generation Science Standards are made up of three components listed as follows: disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts. These are referred to as the three dimensions of the Next Generation Science Standards. Within these standards, there is emphasis on alignment with K-12 [[Common Core]] state standards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bybee |first=Rodger W. |date=2014-04-08 |title=NGSS and the Next Generation of Science Teachers |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-014-9381-4 |journal=Journal of Science Teacher Education |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=211–221 |doi=10.1007/s10972-014-9381-4 |bibcode=2014JSTEd..25..211B |s2cid=143736193 |issn=1046-560X}}</ref> The dimension entitled "science and engineering practices" focuses on students' learning of the scientific method. This means that this dimension centers around practicing science in a hands-on manner, giving students the opportunity to observe scientific processes, hypothesize, and observe results. This dimension highlights the empirical methods of science. The dimension entitled "crosscutting concepts" emphasizes the understanding of key themes within the field of science. The "crosscutting concepts" are themes that are consistently relevant throughout many different scientific disciplines, such as the flow of energy/matter, cause/effect, systems/system practices, patterns, the relationship between structure and function, and stability/change. The purpose of outlining these key themes relates to generalized learning, meaning that the effectiveness of these themes could lie in the fact that these concepts are important throughout all of the scientific disciplines. The intention is that by learning them, students will create a broad understanding of science. The dimension entitled "disciplinary core ideas" outlines a set of key ideas for each scientific field. For example, physical science has a certain set of core ideas laid out by the framework.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Scruggs |first1=Thomas E. |last2=Brigham |first2=Frederick J. |last3=Mastropieri |first3=Margo A. |date=2013 |title=Common Core Science Standards: Implications for Students With Learning Disabilities |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a2h&AN=85603871&site=ehost-live&scope=site |journal=Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children. |volume=28(1), 49–57 C |via=EBSCOhost}}</ref>

==== Science Education and Common Core ====
[[Common Core]] education standards emphasize on reading, writing, and communication skills. The purpose of these standards for English and Mathematics was to create measurable goals for student learning that are aligned with the standards in place in other nations, such that students in the United States become prepared to succeed at a global level. It is meant to set standards for academics that are rigorous in nature and prepare students for higher education. It is also outlined that students with disabilities must be properly accommodated for under Common Core standards via an [[Individualized education plan|Individualized Education Plan]] (IEP). Under these standards, the comprehension of scientific writing has become an important skill for students to learn through textbooks.<ref name=":02" />

==== Science Education Strategies ====

Evidence suggests, however, that students learn science more effectively under hands-on, activity and inquiry based learning, rather than learning from a textbook. It has been seen that students, in particular those with learning disabilities, perform better on unit tests after learning science through activities, rather than textbook-based learning. Thus, it is argued that science is better learned through experiential activities. Additionally, it has reported that students, specifically those with learning disabilities, prefer and feel that they learn more effectively through activity-based learning. Information like this can help inform the way science is taught and how it can be taught most effectively for students of all abilities.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Scruggs |first1=Thomas E. |last2=Mastropieri |first2=Margo A. |last3=Bakken |first3=Jeffrey P. |last4=Brigham |first4=Frederick J. |date=April 1993 |title=Reading Versus Doing: The Relative Effects of Textbook-Based and Inquiry-Oriented Approaches to Science Learning in Special Education Classrooms |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002246699302700101 |journal=The Journal of Special Education |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1177/002246699302700101 |s2cid=145160675 |issn=0022-4669}}</ref> The laboratory is a foundational example of hands-on, activity-based learning. In the laboratory, students use materials to observe scientific concepts and phenomena. The laboratory in science education can include multiple different phases. These phases include planning and design, performance, and analysis and interpretation. It is believed by many educators that laboratory work promotes their students' scientific thinking, problem solving skills, and cognitive development. Since 1960, instructional strategies for science education have taken into account [[Jean Piaget|Jean Piaget's]] developmental model, and therefore started introducing concrete materials and laboratory settings, which required students to actively participate in their learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofstein |first1=Avi |last2=Lunetta |first2=Vincent N. |date=June 1982 |title=The Role of the Laboratory in Science Teaching: Neglected Aspects of Research |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/00346543052002201 |journal=Review of Educational Research |language=en |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=201–217 |doi=10.3102/00346543052002201 |s2cid=210859561 |issn=0034-6543}}</ref>

In addition to the importance of the laboratory in learning and teaching science, there has been an increase in the importance of learning using computational tools. The use of computational tools, which have become extremely prevalent in [[STEM]] fields as a result of the advancement of technology, has been shown to support science learning. The learning of computational science in the classroom is becoming foundational to students' learning of modern science concepts. In fact, the Next Generation Science Standards specifically reference the use of computational tools and simulations. Through the use of computational tools, students participate in computational thinking, a cognitive process in which interacting with computational tools such as computers is a key aspect. As computational thinking becomes increasingly relevant in science, it becomes an increasingly important aspect of learning for science educators to act on.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hurt |first1=Timothy |last2=Greenwald |first2=Eric |last3=Allan |first3=Sara |last4=Cannady |first4=Matthew A. |last5=Krakowski |first5=Ari |last6=Brodsky |first6=Lauren |last7=Collins |first7=Melissa A. |last8=Montgomery |first8=Ryan |last9=Dorph |first9=Rena |date=2023-01-05 |title=The computational thinking for science (CT-S) framework: operationalizing CT-S for K–12 science education researchers and educators |journal=International Journal of STEM Education |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1 |doi=10.1186/s40594-022-00391-7 |s2cid=255724260 |issn=2196-7822|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Another strategy, that may include both hands-on activities and using computational tools, is creating authentic science learning experiences. Several perspectives of authentic science education have been suggested, including: ''canonical'' perspective - making science education as similar as possible to the way science is practiced in the real world; ''youth-centered'' - solving problems that are of interest to young students; ''contextual'' - a combination of the canonical and youth-centered perspectives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buxton |first=Cory A. |date=September 2006 |title=Creating contextually authentic science in a "low-performing" urban elementary school |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.20105 |journal=Journal of Research in Science Teaching |language=en |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=695–721 |doi=10.1002/tea.20105 |bibcode=2006JRScT..43..695B |issn=0022-4308}}</ref> Although activities involving hands-on inquiry and computational tools may be authentic, some have contended that inquiry tasks commonly used in schools are not authentic enough, but often rely on simple "cookbook" experiments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chinn |first1=Clark A. |last2=Malhotra |first2=Betina A. |date=May 2002 |title=Epistemologically authentic inquiry in schools: A theoretical framework for evaluating inquiry tasks |journal=Science Education |language=en |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=175–218 |doi=10.1002/sce.10001 |bibcode=2002SciEd..86..175C |s2cid=18931212 |issn=0036-8326|doi-access=free }}</ref> Authentic science learning experiences can be implemented in various forms.  For example: hand on inquiry, preferably involving an open ended investigation; student-teacher-scientist partnership (STSP) or [[citizen science]] projects; [[Design-based learning|design-based learning (DBL)]]; using web-based environments used by scientists (using bioinformatics tools like genes or proteins databases, alignment tools etc.), and; learning with adapted primary literature (APL), which exposes students also to the way the scientific community communicates knowledge.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Dorfman |first1=Bat-Shahar |title=How Might Authentic Scientific Experiences Promote an Understanding of Genetics in High School? |date=2021 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86051-6_6 |work=Genetics Education: Current Challenges and Possible Solutions |pages=87–104 |editor-last=Haskel-Ittah |editor-first=Michal |access-date=2023-07-04 |series=Contributions from Biology Education Research |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-86051-6_6 |isbn=978-3-030-86051-6 |last2=Yarden |first2=Anat |editor2-last=Yarden |editor2-first=Anat}}</ref> These examples and more can be applied to various domains of science taught in schools (as well as undergraduate education), and comply with the calls to include scientific practices in science curricula.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

====Informal science education====
[[File:Argonne lab education.jpg|right|thumb|Young women participate in a conference at the [[Argonne National Laboratory]].]]
[[File:Students use microscope LPB Laos.jpg|thumb|Young students use a microscope for the first time, as they examine bacteria a "Discovery Day" organized by [[Big Brother Mouse]], a literacy and education project in Laos.]]
Informal science education is the science teaching and learning that occurs outside of the formal school curriculum in places such as museums, the media, and community-based programs. The [[National Science Teachers Association]] has created a position statement<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/informal.aspx |title=NSTA Position Statement: Informal Science Education |publisher=National Science Teachers Association |access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> on Informal Science Education to define and encourage science learning in many contexts and throughout the lifespan. Research in informal science education is funded in the United States by the National Science Foundation.<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5361 National Science Foundation funding for informal science education]</ref> The [[Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education]] (CAISE)<ref>{{cite web |title=Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE) |url=http://www.informalscience.org/}}</ref> provides resources for the informal science education community.

Examples of informal science education include science centers, [[science museums]], and new digital learning environments (''e.g.'' [[Global Challenge Award]]), many of which are members of the [[Association of Science and Technology Centers]] (ASTC).<ref>{{cite web |title=Association of Science-Technology Centers |url=http://astc.org/}}</ref> The [[Franklin Institute]] in Philadelphia and the [[Museum of Science (Boston)]] are the oldest of this type of museum in the United States.  Media include TV programs such as ''[[Nova (American TV program)|NOVA]]'', ''Newton's Apple'', "[[Bill Nye the Science Guy]]","[[Beakman's World]]", ''[[The Magic School Bus]]'', and ''[[Dragonfly TV]]''. Early examples of science education on American television included programs by [[Daniel Q. Posin]], such as "Dr. Posin's Universe", "The Universe Around Us", "On the Shoulders of Giants", and "Out of This World".  Examples of community-based programs are [[4-H]] Youth Development programs, [[Hands On Science Outreach, Inc.|Hands On Science Outreach]], NASA and After school Programs<ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.nasa.gov/divisions/informal/overview/R_NASA_and_Afterschool_Programs.html |title=NASA and Afterschool Programs: Connecting to the Future |publisher=NASA |date=3 April 2006 |access-date=28 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027023742/http://education.nasa.gov/divisions/informal/overview/R_NASA_and_Afterschool_Programs.html |archive-date=27 October 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and Girls at the Center. Home education is encouraged through educational products such as the former (1940-1989) [[Things of Science]] subscription service.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1hwiAAAAIBAJ&pg=4985,4298460&dq=things-of-science&hl=en|title=Thing-of-the-Month Club will provide remarkable objects|last=Othman|first=Frederick C.|date=7 October 1947|work=[[San Jose Evening News]]|access-date=1 November 2013}}</ref>

In 2010, the National Academies released ''Surrounded by Science: Learning Science in Informal Environments'',<ref>{{cite book |author1=Fenichel, M. |author2=Schweingruber, H.A. |author3=National Research Council |title=Surrounded by Science in Informal Environments |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington DC |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-309-13674-7 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12614|doi=10.17226/12614 }}</ref> based on the National Research Council study, ''Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Committee on Learning Science in Informal Environments, National Research Council |title=Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington DC |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-309-11955-9 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12190|doi=10.17226/12190 }}</ref> ''Surrounded by Science'' is a resource book that shows how current research on learning science across informal science settings can guide the thinking, the work, and the discussions among informal science practitioners. This book makes valuable research accessible to those working in informal science: educators, museum professionals, university faculty, youth leaders, media specialists, publishers, broadcast journalists, and many others.