Editing Sargon II (section)

== Character ==

=== Warrior-king ===
[[File:Terracotta cylinder of Sargon II narrating his military campaigns. From Khorsabad, Iraq. Iraq Museum.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|left|[[Terracotta]] cylinder from [[Dur-Sharrukin]] narrating Sargon's campaigns|alt=Terracotta cylinder]]
Sargon II was a warrior-king and conqueror who commanded his armies in person and dreamt of conquering the world like [[Sargon of Akkad]]. Sargon assumed traditional [[Mesopotamia]]n titles relating to world domination, such as "[[King of the Universe|king of the universe]]" and "[[King of the Four Corners|king of the four corners of the world]]", and great power, including "[[great king]]" and "mighty king".{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=16}} Although [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] kings' titles were formulaic, they typically used additional epithets to highlight their unique qualities and aspirations.{{sfn|Karlsson|2017|p=13}} Sargon's epithets present him as if he were an invincible warlord, for example, "mighty hero, clothed with terror, who sends forth his weapon to bring low the foe, brave warrior, since the day of whose (accession) to rulership, there has been no prince equal to him, who has been without conqueror or rival".{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=|pp=16–17}} Sargon wished to be seen as an omnipresent and eager warrior. Sargon is unlikely to have fought on the frontlines in all campaigns since this would greatly have jeopardized the empire, but it is clear that he was more interested in participating in war than his predecessors and successors and he did eventually die in battle.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=|pp=16–17}}

Sargon was a highly successful [[military strategist]] who employed an extensive spy network, useful for administration and military activities, and employed well-trained scouts for reconnaissance when on campaign. Even though the Assyrian Empire was vastly more powerful than any of its enemies, these enemies also surrounded the empire. Because only one target could be attacked at a time, they had to be picked wisely in order to avoid disaster. Sargon outwitted his enemies on multiple occasions, for instance through the unexpected route he took in the war with [[Urartu]].{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=19}} Sargon's ability to quickly react and adapt to setbacks distinguished him from his predecessors.{{Sfn|Melville|2016|p=193}} Sargon also strengthened the Assyrian army; he was the first Assyrian king to appreciate the war potential of cavalry and made various innovations, including picking certain breeds of horses, developing new methods of [[Horse harness|harnessing]] and recruiting [[mercenary]] cavalry.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=251}} Based on the contents of his letters, Sargon seems to have ensured discipline and obedience through fear rather than inspiration or adoration. When raising troops, he at times threatened them with the same type of punishments enacted against Assyria's worst enemies, should they disobey him.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=|pp=19–20}}

[[File:Sargon II, Iraq Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Relief from [[Dur-Sharrukin]] depicting Sargon in a chariot, observing an Assyrian attack on a city.|alt=Sargon in a chariot on a rock relief]]
{{Quote|text=This is a royal order of great emergency! Assemble the commanders and the horsemen of your cavalry unit immediately! Whoever is late will be impaled in the middle of his own house, and his sons and daughters too will be slaughtered, which will then be the fault of his own! Don't delay! Drop everything and come straight away!|author=Excerpt from a letter sent by Sargon II summoning a cavalry regiment to participate in a campaign{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=20}}}}

Unlike the numerous records of such punishments against Assyrian enemies, there is no evidence that Sargon's threats were realized—it is unlikely that they ever were. Because the soldiers in many cases had themselves participated in punishments against their enemies, the threats themselves were probably sufficient. Despite this approach, Sargon was not unpopular with the military; there are no records of army uprisings against him, nor of any army officers engaging in conspiracies. It is also probable that the main motivating factor for Assyrians serving in the army was not being threatened by the king, but rather the frequent [[Looting|spoils of war]] that could be taken after victories.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=20}}

=== Quest for renown ===
[[File:Gilgamesh subduing a lion.jpg|upright=0.55|thumb|Giant relief from [[Dur-Sharrukin]] thought to depict [[Gilgamesh]] subduing a lion.|alt=Possible relief of Gilgamesh from Dur-Sharrukin]]
Nearly all Assyrian kings wished to outdo their predecessors and be remembered as glorious rulers.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=5}} Sargon aspired to surpass all previous kings, even [[Sargon of Akkad]]. He established and cultivated his own [[cult of personality]], for instance through having [[Stele|stelae]] made with depictions of him as a formidable king and placing these across the empire, often in highly visible places such as frequented passageways. In his palace in [[Dur-Sharrukin]], Sargon decorated the walls with reliefs depicting himself and his achievements. He hoped that future generations would regard him as one of the greatest kings.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=|pp=16–17}}

Sargon's aspiration for renown is also reflected in Dur-Sharrukin, which was likely founded mainly as an ideological statement given its location's lack of obvious merit.{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=118}} Perhaps inspired by Sargon of Akkad being credited as the founder of the city of [[Akkad (city)|Akkad]],{{Sfn|Foster|2016|p=278}} Sargon II built Dur-Sharrukin for his own glory and intended the city, and his various other building works, to preserve his memory for generations to come.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=22}} The inscriptions in Dur-Sharrukin evoke Sargon's desire to initiate a [[Golden Age|golden age]] and to mark the beginning of a [[New world order (politics)|new world order]].{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=207}} They also condemn those who would destroy Sargon's works and encourage future kings to honor his memory.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=22}}

In addition to Sargon of Akkad, another figure idolized by Sargon II was the ancient [[Sumerians|Sumerian]] ruler [[Gilgamesh]], chiefly known in Sargon's time through the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''.{{Sfn|Foster|2016|p=278}}{{Sfn|Helle|2021|loc=A Poem for the Ages}} In several surviving texts, Sargon II's feats were implicitly compared to the legend.{{Sfn|Foster|2016|p=278}} In Sargon's inscriptions, the campaign against [[Urartu]] includes portions where it seems that Sargon is fighting not only the Urartians but also the landscape itself. A section where the mountains are described as if they are rising up as swords and spears to oppose Sargon's advance would probably have reminded Assyrian readers of a similar section in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', implying that Sargon faced dangers equal to those of the ancient hero.{{Sfn|Helle|2021|loc=A Poem for the Ages}} A giant relief at Dur-Sharrukin depicts a muscular man holding a lion to his chest. Though the relief bears no inscription that proves its identity, scholars generally identify it as a depiction of Gilgamesh.{{Sfn|Helle|2021|loc=A Poem for the Ages}} In the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', Gilgamesh, though failing to gain actual immortality, achieves a type of immortality through his creation of an impressive wall surrounding [[Uruk]], a building work that will outlast him and perpetuate his memory.{{Sfn|Kovacs|1989|p=xx}}

=== Guardian of justice ===
[[File:Upper part of the stela of Sargon II from Cyprus, late 8th century BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|left|thumb|Close-up of the image of Sargon on the [[Sargon Stele]] from [[Cyprus]].|alt=Sargon on a stele]]
Sargon titled himself a "guardian of justice"{{Sfn|Darling|2013|p=221}} and considered himself to be divinely mandated to "maintain justice and right", "give guidance to those who are not strong" and "not to injure the weak".{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=12}} Sargon worked to ensure the protection and security of the people who lived under his rule.{{Sfn|Darling|2013|p=26}}

Under [[Tiglath-Pileser III]], Assyrian efforts to assimilate and incorporate conquered foreign peoples had begun in earnest. Sargon continued and extended this policy, putting foreigners on the same footing as the original Assyrian population. Sargon's accounts of conquests explicitly mention that he placed the same taxes on the people of the new territories as he did on the people in the Assyrian heartland.{{Sfn|Darling|2013|p=27}} Sargon also encouraged assimilation, cultural mixture and the teaching, rather than forceful imposition, of Assyrian ways of life.{{Sfn|Darling|2013|p=27}}{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} One of the passages in an account of Dur-Sharrukin's construction for instance reads:{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}

{{quote|quote=Subjects of (all) four (parts of the world), of foreign tongues, with different languages without similarity, people from mountainous regions and plains, so many (different people) as the light of the gods,{{efn|Referring to the sun god [[Shamash]].{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}}} lord above all, supervises, I let dwell inside [my new city] on the command of Ashur my lord [...]. Born Assyrians, experienced in all professions, I set above them as supervisors and guides to teach them how to work properly and respect the gods and the king.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}}}

The power and influence of the women at the royal court was increased in Sargon's reign. He created new military units subservient to the queen,{{Sfn|Svärd|2015|pp=163–166}}{{Sfn|Melville|2019|p=691}}{{Sfn|Svärd|2016|p=128}} which grew in size and diversity under Sargon's successors. These units were part of the military might of the empire and participated in campaigns.{{Sfn|Svärd|2015|pp=163–166}}{{Sfn|Melville|2019|p=691}} Sargon's motivation is not known, but perhaps he wanted to reduce the influence of powerful officials by delegating authority and responsibilities to trusted relatives, including women.{{Sfn|Melville|2019|p=691}} The office of ''[[turtanu]]'' was split into two, one being assigned to the forces of the queen.{{Sfn|Svärd|2015|pp=163–166}}

In Assyrian royal ideology, the Assyrian king was the divinely appointed mortal representative of [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]]. The king was seen as having the moral, humane and necessary obligation to extend Assyria since lands outside Assyria were regarded to be uncivilized and a threat to the cosmic and divine order within the Assyrian Empire. Expansionism was thus cast as a moral duty to convert chaos to civilization.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=363–365}} Resistance against Assyrian rule was seen as fighting against divine will; rebels and enemies were criminals against the divine world order, deserving punishment.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|pp=22, 29}} Though some atrocities are recorded in Sargon's inscriptions, including "filling the mountain valleys" with the bodies of enemy soldiers{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=18}} and gouging out the eyes of prisoners,{{Sfn|Bagg|2016|p=66}} Sargon's inscriptions do not appear to contain much overt sadism (unlike the inscriptions of some other kings, such as [[Ashurnasirpal II]]).{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=18}} Atrocities enacted by Assyrian kings were in most known cases directed only towards soldiers and elites; as of 2016 none of the known inscriptions or reliefs of Sargon mention or show harm being done to civilians.{{Sfn|Bagg|2016|p=|pp=59–60, 67}} Unlike virtually all other Assyrian kings, Sargon did not solely exert dominion through aggression, but maintained good relations with several foreign ruling classes and external kings, rewarded loyal vassals, worked to seal alliances, and several times spared and forgave repentant enemies.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=|pp=246–247}}

Sargon saw himself as exceptionally intelligent, more so than any of his predecessors.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=16}} It is probable that he received the usual education of the Assyrian upper class, learning both [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] and [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], as well as some [[arithmetic]]. Sargon was perhaps also educated in [[art]] or [[literature]]; he built a library in his palace and covered the palace walls in artwork.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=23}} Sargon heavily promoted writing and scribal culture; court scholars became more prominent in Sargon's reign than both before and after. Over a thousand [[cuneiform]] letters are known from Sargon's time, more than from the reigns of his three successors combined.{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=249}}