Editing Saladin (section)

==Imperial expansions==

===Campaign against the Franks and War with the Zengids===
[[File:Dirham of Saladin, 1215-1216.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Saladin on a posthumous [[dirham]] of the Ayyubid [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus|Al-Ashraf Musa]], with obverse legend: ''"The Victorious King, Righteousness of the World and the Faith, Yusuf ibn Ayyub"''.<ref name="BAL"/><ref name="DN"/><ref name="auto"/> Dated 1215 CE;<ref name="BAL"/> similar coins were also minted in Saladin's lifetime.<ref>For a similar coin at the British Museum minted in AH 586/1190 CE: {{cite web |title=Saladin coin British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1865-0804-40-X |website=britishmuseum.org |language=en}}, and another one also minted in 1190: [[File:Saladin 1190 mint of Mayyafariqin.jpg|20px]].</ref>]]
Saif ad-Din had died earlier in June 1181 and his brother [[Izz ad-Din Mas'ud|Izz ad-Din]] inherited leadership of Mosul.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=149}} On 4 December, the crown prince of the Zengids, as-Salih, died in Aleppo. Prior to his death, he had his chief officers swear an oath of loyalty to Izz ad-Din, as he was the only Zengid ruler strong enough to oppose Saladin. Izz ad-Din was welcomed in Aleppo, but possessing it and Mosul put too great of a strain on his abilities. He thus, handed Aleppo to his brother Imad ad-Din Zangi, in exchange for [[Sinjar]]. Saladin offered no opposition to these transactions in order to respect the treaty he previously made with the Zengids.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=164–165}}

On 11 May 1182, Saladin, along with half of the Egyptian Ayyubid army and numerous non-combatants, left Cairo for Syria. On the evening before he departed, he sat with his companions and the tutor of one of his sons quoted a line of poetry: "enjoy the scent of the ox-eye plant of [[Najd]], for after this evening it will come no more". Saladin took this as an evil omen and he never saw Egypt again.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=149}} Knowing that Crusader forces were massed upon the frontier to intercept him, he took the desert route across the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to [[Ailah]] at the head of the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. Meeting no opposition, Saladin ravaged the countryside of [[Montreal (Crusader castle)|Montreal]], whilst Baldwin's forces watched on, refusing to intervene.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|p=167}} He arrived in Damascus in June to learn that Farrukh-Shah had attacked the [[Galilee]], sacking [[Daburiyya]] and capturing Habis Jaldek, a fortress of great importance to the Crusaders. In July, Saladin led his army across the Jordan and into [[Galilee]], where he marched south to sack [[Bethsan]]. He was met by a substantial Crusader force in an [[Battle of Belvoir Castle|inconclusive battle near Belvoir Castle]], but he was unable to destroy the Christian army and could not logistically sustain his own army any longer, so he withdrew across the river. In August, he passed through the [[Beqaa Valley]] to Beirut, where he rendezvoused with the Egyptian fleet and laid siege to the city. Failing to make any headway, he withdrew after a few days to deal with matters in [[Mesopotamia]].{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=168–169}}

Kukbary ([[Gökböri|Muzaffar ad-Din Gökböri]]), the ''emir'' of [[Harran]], invited Saladin to occupy the Jazira region, making up northern Mesopotamia. He complied and the truce between him and the Zengids officially ended in September 1182.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=169–170}} Prior to his march to Jazira, tensions had grown between the Zengid rulers of the region, primarily concerning their unwillingness to pay deference to Mosul.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=164}} Before he crossed the [[Euphrates]], Saladin besieged Aleppo for three days, signaling that the truce was over.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=169–170}}

Once he reached Bira, near the river, he was joined by Kukbary and [[Nur al-Din Muhammad|Nur ad-Din of Hisn Kayfa]] and the combined forces captured the cities of Jazira, one after the other. First, [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] fell, followed by [[Saruj]], then [[Raqqa]], [[Circesium|Qirqesiya]] and [[Nusaybin]].{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=169–70}} Raqqa was an important crossing point and held by Qutb ad-Din Inal, who had lost Manbij to Saladin in 1176. Upon seeing the large size of Saladin's army, he made little effort to resist and surrendered on the condition that he would retain his property. Saladin promptly impressed the inhabitants of the town by publishing a decree that ordered a number of taxes to be canceled and erased all mention of them from treasury records, stating "the most miserable rulers are those whose purses are fat and their people thin". From Raqqa, he moved to conquer al-Fudain, al-Husain, Maksim, Durain, 'Araban, and Khabur—all of which swore allegiance to him.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=176}}

Saladin proceeded to take Nusaybin which offered no resistance. A medium-sized town, Nusaybin was not of great importance, but it was located in a strategic position between Mardin and Mosul and within easy reach of Diyarbakir.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=177}} In the midst of these victories, Saladin received word that the Crusaders were raiding the villages of Damascus. He replied, "Let them... whilst they knock down villages, we are taking cities; when we come back, we shall have all the more strength to fight them."{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=169–170}} Meanwhile, in Aleppo, the ''emir'' of the city Zangi raided Saladin's cities to the north and east, such as Balis, Manbij, Saruj, Buza'a, al-Karzain. He also destroyed his own citadel at A'zaz to prevent it from being used by the Ayyubids if they were to conquer it.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=177}}

===Fight for Mosul===
[[File:Badr al-Din Lulu frontispiece (guards).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Zengid]] soldiers from [[Mosul]], with swords and the ''[[Qaba|aqbiya turkiyya]]'' coat, ''[[tiraz]]'' armbands, boots and ''[[sharbush]]'' hat. ''[[Kitab al-Aghani]]'', 1218–1219.<ref name="DSR">{{cite journal |last1=Rice |first1=D. S. |title=The Aghānī Miniatures and Religious Painting in Islam |journal=The Burlington Magazine |date=1953 |volume=95 |issue=601 |page=130 |jstor=871101 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/871101 |issn=0007-6287}}</ref>]]
As Saladin approached Mosul, he faced the issue of taking over a large city and justifying the action.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=178}} The Zengids of Mosul appealed to [[an-Nasir]], the Abbasid caliph at Baghdad whose vizier favored them. An-Nasir sent Badr al-Badr (a high-ranking religious figure) to mediate between the two sides. Saladin arrived at the city on 10 November 1182. Izz ad-Din would not accept his terms because he considered them disingenuous and extensive, and Saladin immediately laid siege to the heavily fortified city.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=179}}

After several minor skirmishes and a stalemate in the siege that was initiated by the caliph, Saladin intended to find a way to withdraw without damage to his reputation while still keeping up some military pressure. He decided to attack Sinjar, which was held by Izz ad-Din's brother Sharaf ad-Din. It fell after a 15-day siege on 30 December.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=180–181}} Saladin's soldiers broke their discipline, plundering the city; Saladin managed to protect the governor and his officers only by sending them to Mosul. After establishing a garrison at Sinjar, he awaited a coalition assembled by Izz ad-Din consisting of his forces, those from Aleppo, Mardin, and Armenia.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|p=171}} Saladin and his army met the coalition at Harran in February 1183, but on hearing of his approach, the latter sent messengers to Saladin asking for peace. Each force returned to their cities and al-Fadil wrote: "They [Izz ad-Din's coalition] advanced like men, like women they vanished."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lane-Poole |first1=Stanley |title=Saladin and the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |date=1903 |publisher=Рипол Классик |isbn=978-5-87674-321-3 |page=172 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmcPAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172 |language=en}}</ref>

On 2 March, al-Adil from Egypt wrote to Saladin that the Crusaders had struck the "heart of Islam". [[Crusader raids on the Red Sea|Raynald de Châtillon had sent ships]] to the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to raid towns and villages off the coast of the [[Red Sea]]. It was not an attempt to extend the Crusader influence into that sea or to capture its trade routes, but merely a piratical move.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=184}} Nonetheless, Imad ad-Din writes the raid was alarming to the Muslims because they were not accustomed to attacks on that sea, and Ibn al-Athir adds that the inhabitants had no experience with the Crusaders either as fighters or traders.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=185}}

[[Ibn Jubair]] was told that sixteen Muslim ships were burnt by the Crusaders, who then captured a pilgrim ship and caravan at [[Aidab]]. He also reported that they intended to attack [[Medina]] and remove [[Muhammad]]'s body. [[Al-Maqrizi]] added to the rumor by claiming Muhammad's tomb was going to be relocated to Crusader territory so Muslims would make pilgrimages there. Al-Adil had his warships moved from Fustat and Alexandria to the Red Sea under the command of an Armenian mercenary Lu'lu. They broke the Crusader blockade, destroyed most of their ships, and pursued and captured those who anchored and fled into the desert.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=186}} The surviving Crusaders, numbered at 170, were ordered to be killed by Saladin in various Muslim cities.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=187}}

[[File:Inlaid brass writing box showing 'Scorpio' wearing a mail hauberk, from Mosul AD 1200-1250. (Franks Bequest, British Mus., London).jpg|thumb|left|Detail of inlaid brass writing box, with soldier wearing a [[hauberk]]. [[Mosul]], 1230–1250 CE, British Museum.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pen-box British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1884-0704-85 |website=britishmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=Men-at-arms series 171 – Saladin and the saracens |date=1997 |publisher=Osprey publishing |url=https://www.ghazali.org/saladin/maas-171.pdf |page=14}}</ref>]]
From the point of view of Saladin, in terms of territory, the war against Mosul was going well, but he still failed to achieve his objectives and his army was shrinking; Taqi ad-Din took his men back to Hama, while Nasir ad-Din Muhammad and his forces had left. This encouraged Izz ad-Din and his allies to take the offensive. The previous coalition regrouped at Harzam some 140&nbsp;km from Harran. In early April, without waiting for Nasir ad-Din, Saladin and Taqi ad-Din commenced their advance against the coalition, marching eastward to Ras al-Ein unhindered.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=188}} By late April, after three days of "actual fighting", according to Saladin, the Ayyubids had captured [[Amid]]. He handed the city to Nur ad-Din Muhammad together with its stores, which consisted of 80,000 candles, a tower full of arrowheads, and 1,040,000 books. In return for a diploma—granting him the city, Nur ad-Din swore allegiance to Saladin, promising to follow him in every expedition in the war against the Crusaders, and repairing the damage done to the city. The fall of Amid, in addition to territory, convinced Il-Ghazi of Mardin to enter the service of Saladin, weakening Izz ad-Din's coalition.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=191}}

Saladin attempted to gain the Caliph an-Nasir's support against Izz ad-Din by sending him a letter requesting a document that would give him legal justification for taking over Mosul and its territories. Saladin aimed to persuade the caliph claiming that while he conquered Egypt and Yemen under the flag of the Abbasids, the Zengids of Mosul openly supported the Seljuks (rivals of the caliphate) and only came to the caliph when in need. He also accused Izz ad-Din's forces of disrupting the Muslim "Holy War" against the Crusaders, stating "they are not content not to fight, but they prevent those who can". Saladin defended his own conduct claiming that he had come to Syria to fight the Crusaders, end the heresy of the Assassins, and stop the wrong-doing of the Muslims. He also promised that if Mosul was given to him, it would lead to the capture of Jerusalem, [[Constantinople]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and the lands of the [[Almohad]]s in the [[Maghreb]], "until the word of God is supreme and the Abbasid caliphate has wiped the world clean, turning the churches into mosques". Saladin stressed that all this would happen by the will of God, and instead of asking for financial or military support from the caliph, he would capture and give the caliph the territories of [[Tikrit]], [[Daquq]], [[Khuzestan]], [[Kish Island]], and [[Oman]].{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=192–194}}

===Possession of Aleppo===
[[File:Citadel_of_Aleppo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Citadel of Aleppo]].]]
Saladin turned his attention from Mosul to Aleppo, sending his brother Taj al-Muluk Buri to capture Tell Khalid, 130&nbsp;km northeast of the city. A siege was set, but the governor of Tell Khalid surrendered upon the arrival of Saladin himself on 17 May before a siege could take place. According to Imad ad-Din, after Tell Khalid, Saladin took a detour northwards to [[Aintab]], but he gained possession of it when his army turned towards it, allowing him to quickly move backward another c. 100&nbsp;km towards Aleppo. On 21 May, he camped outside the city, positioning himself east of the [[Citadel of Aleppo]], while his forces encircled the suburb of Banaqusa to the northeast and [[Bab al-Jinan|Bab Janan]] to the west. He stationed his men dangerously close to the city, hoping for an early success.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=195}}

Zangi did not offer long resistance. He was unpopular with his subjects and wished to return to his Sinjar, the city he governed previously. An exchange was negotiated where Zangi would hand over Aleppo to Saladin in return for the restoration of his control of Sinjar, Nusaybin, and Raqqa. Zangi would hold these territories as Saladin's vassals in terms of military service. On 12 June, Aleppo was formally placed in Ayyubid hands.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=172–173}} The people of Aleppo had not known about these negotiations and were taken by surprise when Saladin's standard was hoisted over the citadel. Two ''emir''s, including an old friend of Saladin, Izz ad-Din Jurduk, welcomed and pledged their service to him. Saladin replaced the [[Hanafi]] courts with Shafi'i administration, despite a promise that he would not interfere in the religious leadership of the city. Although he was short of money, Saladin also allowed the departing Zangi to take all the stores of the citadel that he could travel with and to sell the remainder—which Saladin purchased himself. In spite of his earlier hesitation to go through with the exchange, he had no doubts about his success, stating that Aleppo was "the key to the lands" and "this city is the eye of Syria and the citadel is its pupil".{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=199}} For Saladin, the capture of the city marked the end of over eight years of waiting since he told Farrukh-Shah that "we have only to do the milking and Aleppo will be ours".{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=198–201}}

After spending one night in Aleppo's citadel, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held [[Antioch]]. The city was held by Surhak, a "minor ''[[mamluk]]''". Saladin offered him the city of [[Bosra|Busra]] and property in Damascus in exchange for [[Harem, Syria|Harim]], but when Surhak asked for more, his own garrison in Harim forced him out. He was arrested by Saladin's deputy Taqi ad-Din on allegations that he was planning to cede Harim to [[Bohemond III, Prince of Antioch|Bohemond III of Antioch]]. When Saladin received its surrender, he proceeded to arrange the defense of Harim from the Crusaders. He reported to the caliph and his own subordinates in Yemen and [[Baalbek]] that he was going to attack the Armenians. Before he could move, however, there were a number of administrative details to be settled. Saladin agreed to a truce with Bohemond in return for Muslim prisoners being held by him and then he gave A'zaz to Alam ad-Din Suleiman and Aleppo to Saif ad-Din al-Yazkuj—the former was an ''emir'' of Aleppo who joined Saladin and the latter was a former ''mamluk'' of Shirkuh who helped rescue him from the assassination attempt at A'zaz.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=202–203}}