Editing Romani language (section)

==Morphology==
===Nominals===
Nominals in Romani are nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals.<ref name="mluvnice"/> Some sources describe articles as nominals.

The indefinite article is often borrowed from the local contact language.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

==== Types ====
General Romani is an unusual language, in having two classes of nominals, based on the historic origin of the word, that have a completely different morphology. The two classes can be called ''inherited'' and ''borrowed'',<ref name="mluvnice"/> but this article uses names from Matras (2006),{{sfn|Matras|2006}} ''ikeoclitic'' and ''xenoclitic''. The class to which a word belongs is obvious from its ending.

===== Ikeoclitic =====
The first class is the old, Indian vocabulary (and to some extent [[Persian language|Persian]], Armenian and Greek loanwords).<ref name="mluvnice"/> The ikeoclitic class can also be divided into two sub-classes, based on the ending.{{sfn|Matras|2006}}

====== Nominals ending in o/i ======
The ending of words in this sub-class is -o with masculines, -i with feminines, with the latter ending triggering palatalisation of preceding ''d, t, n, l'' to ''ď, ť, ň, ľ''.<ref name="mluvnice"/>

Examples:<ref name="mluvnice"/>
*masculine
**'''{{lang|rom|o čhavo}}''' - the son
**'''{{lang|rom|o cikno}}''' - the little
**'''{{lang|rom|o amaro}}''' - our (m.)
*feminine
**'''{{lang|rom|e rakľi}}''' - non-romani girl
**'''{{lang|rom|e cikňi}}''' - small (note the change n > ň)
**'''{{lang|rom|e amari}}''' - ours (f.)

====== Nominals without ending ======
All words in this sub-class have no endings, regardless of gender.

Examples:{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974}}
*masculine
**'''{{lang|rom|o phral}}''' - the brother
**'''{{lang|rom|o šukar}}''' - the nice (m.)
**'''{{lang|rom|o dad}}''' - the father
*feminine
**'''{{lang|rom|e phen}}''' - the sister
**'''{{lang|rom|e šukar}}''' - the nice (f.) - same as m.
**'''{{lang|rom|e daj}}''' - the mother

===== Xenoclitic =====
The second class is loanwords from [[European languages]].<ref name="mluvnice"/>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974}}{{sfn|Matras|2002|p=73}} (Matras adds that the morphology of the new loanwords might be borrowed from Greek.)

The ending of borrowed masculine is -os, -is, -as, -us, and the borrowed feminine ends in -a.

Examples from Slovak Romani:<ref name="mluvnice"/>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974}}
*masculine
**'''{{lang|rom|o šustros}}''' - shoemaker
**'''{{lang|rom|o autobusis}}''' - bus
**'''{{lang|rom|o učiteľis}}''' - teacher (m.)
*feminine
**'''{{lang|rom|e rokľa/maijka}}''' - shirt
**'''{{lang|rom|e oblaka/vokna }}''' - window
**'''{{lang|rom|e učiteľka}}''' - teacher (f.)

==== Basics of morphology ====
Romani has two [[grammatical gender]]s (masculine / feminine) and two numbers (singular / plural).{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

All nominals can be singular or plural.{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=4|loc=V1,3}}

==== Cases ====
Nouns are marked for any of eight cases; [[nominative case|nominative]], [[vocative case|vocative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], [[locative case|locative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], and [[instrumental case|instrumental]]. The former three are formed by inflections on the noun itself, but the latter five are marked by adding postpositions to the accusative, used as an "indirect root."<ref name="mluvnice"/>

The vocative and nominative are a bit "outside" of the case system<ref name="seb52">Šebková, Žlnayová 1998, p. 52–54</ref> as they are produced only by adding a suffix to the root.

Example: the suffix for singular masculine vocative of ikeoclitic types is '''{{lang|rom|-eja}}'''.<ref>Šebková, Žlnayová 1998, p. 47</ref>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=31|loc=V2,1}}
*'''{{lang|rom|čhaveja!}}''' - you, boy (or son)!
*'''{{lang|rom|cikneja!}}''' - you, little one!
*'''{{lang|rom|phrala!}}''' - brother!

The oblique cases disregard gender or type: ''{{lang|rom|-te}}'' / ''{{lang|rom|-de}}'' (locative), ''{{lang|rom|-ke}}'' / ''{{lang|rom|-ge}}'' (dative), ''{{lang|rom|-tar/-dar}}'' (ablative), ''{{lang|rom|-sa(r)}}'' (instrumental and [[comitative]]), and ''{{lang|rom|-ker-}}'' / ''{{lang|rom|-ger-}}'' (genitive).{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

Example: The endings for o/i ending nominals are as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!
! sg. nom.
! sg. acc.
! sg. voc.
! pl. nom.
! pl. acc.
! pl. voc.
|-
! 'boy'<br />(masculine)
| ''{{lang|rom|čhav-o}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|čhav-es}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|čhav-eja}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|čhav-e}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|čhav-en}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|čhav-ale}}''
|-
! 'woman'<br />(feminine)
| ''{{lang|rom|řomn-i}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|řomn-ja}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|řomn-ije}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|řomn-ja}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|řomn-jen}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|řomn-ale}}''
|}

Example: the suffix for indirect root for masculine plural for all inherited words is ''{{lang|rom|-en}}'',<ref name="seb52"/>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=43|loc=V4}} the dative suffix is ''{{lang|rom|-ke}}''.<ref>Šebková, Žlnayová 1998, p. 76–78</ref>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=60|loc=V7}}
*'''{{lang|rom|o xuxur}}''' - mushroom
*'''{{lang|rom|xuxuren}}''' - the indirect root (also used as accusative)
*'''{{lang|rom|Nilaj phiras xuxurenge.}}''' – In the summer we go on mushrooms (meaning picking mushrooms)

There are many [[declension class]]es of nouns that decline differently, and show dialectal variation.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

Parts of speech such as adjectives and the article, when they function as attributes before a word, distinguish only between a nominative and an indirect/oblique case form.<ref>Šebková, Žlnayová 1998, p. 52</ref> In the Early Romani system that most varieties preserve, declinable adjectives had nominative endings similar to the nouns ending in ''-o'' (masculine ''-o'', feminine ''-i'') but the oblique endings ''-e'' in the masculine, ''-a'' in the feminine. The ending ''-e'' was the same regardless of gender. So-called athematic adjectives had the nominative forms ''-o'' in the masculine ''and'' the feminine and ''-a'' in the plural; the oblique has the same endings as the previous group, but the preceding stem changes by adding the element ''-on-''.{{sfn|Matras|2002|p=95}}

==== Agreement ====
Romani shows the typically Indo-Aryan pattern of the genitive agreeing with its head noun.

Example:
* ''{{lang|rom|čhav-es-ker-o phral}}'' - 'the boy's brother'
* ''{{lang|rom|čhav-es-ker-i phen}}'' - 'the boy's sister'.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

Adjectives and the definite article show agreement with the noun they modify.

Example:
* ''{{lang|rom|mir-o dad}}'' - 'my father'
* ''{{lang|rom|mir-i daj}}'' - 'my mother'.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Syntax}}

=== Verbs ===
Romani derivations are highly synthetic and partly agglutinative. However, they are also sensitive to recent development - for example, in general, Romani in Slavic countries show an adoption of productive [[lexical aspect|aktionsart]] morphology.{{sfn|Matras|2002|p=117}}

The core of the verb is the lexical root, verb morphology is suffixed.{{sfn|Matras|2002|p=117}}

The verb stem (including derivation markers) by itself has non-perfective aspect and is present or subjunctive.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

==== Types ====
Similarly to nominals, verbs in Romani belong to several classes, but unlike nominals, these are not based on historical origin. However, the loaned verbs can be recognized, again, by specific endings, which are Greek in origin.{{sfn|Matras|2002|p=117}}

===== Irregular verbs =====
Some words are irregular, like ''{{lang|rom|te jel}}'' - to be.

===== Class I =====
The next three classes are recognizable by suffix in 3rd person singular.

The first class, called I.,<ref name="mluvnice"/>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=20|loc=V1}} has a suffix ''{{lang|rom|-el}}'' in 3rd person singular.

Examples, in 3 ps. sg:{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=20|loc=V1}}
*''{{lang|rom|te kerel}}'' - to do
*''{{lang|rom|te šunel}}'' - to hear
*''{{lang|rom|te dikhel}}'' - to see

===== Class II =====
Words in the second category, called II.,<ref name="mluvnice"/>{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=20|loc=V1}} have a suffix ''{{lang|rom|-l}}'' in 3rd person singular.

Examples, in 3 ps. sg:{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=20|loc=V1}}
*''{{lang|rom|te džal}}'' - to go
*''{{lang|rom|te ladžal}}'' - to be ashamed, shy away.
*''{{lang|rom|te asal}}'' - to laugh
*''{{lang|rom|te paťal}}'' - to believe
*''{{lang|rom|te hal}}'' - to eat

===== Class III =====
All the words in the third class are semantically causative passive.{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=57|loc=V4,1}}

Examples:{{sfn|Hübschmannová|1974|p=54|loc=S}}
*''{{lang|rom|te sikhľol}}'' - to learn
*''{{lang|rom|te labol}}'' - to burn
*''{{lang|rom|te marďol}}'' - to be beaten
*''{{lang|rom|te pašľol}}'' - to lie

===== Borrowed verbs =====
Borrowed verbs from other languages are marked with affixes taken from Greek tense/aspect suffixes, including ''{{lang|rom|-iz-}}'', ''{{lang|rom|-in-}}'', and ''{{lang|rom|-is-}}''.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

==== Morphology ====
The Romani verb has three persons and two numbers, singular and plural. There is no verbal distinction between masculine and feminine.

Romani tenses are, not exclusively, present tense, future tense, two past tenses (perfect and imperfect), present or past conditional and present imperative.

Depending on the dialect, the suffix ''{{lang|rom|-a}}'' marks the present, future, or conditional.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}} There are many perfective suffixes, which are determined by root phonology, valency, and semantics: e.g. ''{{lang|rom|ker-d-}}'' 'did'.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

There are two sets of personal conjugation suffixes, one for non-perfective verbs, and another for perfective verbs.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}} The non-perfective personal suffixes, continued from [[Middle Indo-Aryan]], are as follows:{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Non-perfective personal suffixes
!
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! sg.
| ''{{lang|rom|-av}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|-es}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|-el}}''
|-
! pl.
| ''{{lang|rom|-as}}''
| colspan="2" | ''{{lang|rom|-en}}''
|}

These are slightly different for consonant- and vowel-final roots (e.g. ''{{lang|rom|xa-s}}'' 'you eat', ''{{lang|rom|kam-es}}'' 'you want').{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

The perfective suffixes, deriving from late Middle Indo-Aryan [[enclitic]] pronouns, are as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective personal suffixes
!
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! sg.
| ''{{lang|rom|-om}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|-al}}'' / ''{{lang|rom|-an}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|-as}}''
|-
! pl.
| ''{{lang|rom|-am}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|-an}}'' / ''{{lang|rom|-en}}''
| ''{{lang|rom|-e}}''
|}

Verbs may also take a further remoteness suffix whose original form must have been ''{{lang|rom|-as(i)}}'' and which is preserved in different varieties as ''{{lang|rom|-as}}'', ''{{lang|rom|-ahi}}'', ''{{lang|rom|-ys}}'' or ''{{lang|rom|-s}}''.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}} With non-perfective verbs this marks the imperfect, habitual, or conditional.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}} With the perfective, this marks the [[pluperfect]] or counterfactual.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

===== Class I =====
All the persons and numbers of present tense of the word ''{{lang|rom|te kerel}}'' in East Slovak Romani.<ref name="szl38">Šebková, Žlnayová 1998, p. 38</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!scope="col" | sg
!scope="col" | pl
|-
!scope="row" | 1.ps
|''{{lang|rom|me kerav}}''
|''{{lang|rom|amen keras}}''
|-
!scope="row" | 2.ps
|''{{lang|rom|tu keres}}''
|''{{lang|rom|tumen keren}}''
|-
!scope="row" | 3.ps
|''{{lang|rom|jov kerel}}''
|''{{lang|rom|jon keren}}''
|}

Various tenses of the same word, all in 2nd person singular.<ref name="mluvnice"/>
*present - ''{{lang|rom|tu keres}}''
*future - ''{{lang|rom|tu kereha}}'' (many other dialects use a future particle such as ''ka'' preceding the imperfective form : ''{{lang|rom|tu ka keres}})''
*past imperfect = present conditional - ''{{lang|rom|tu kerehas}}''
*past perfect - ''{{lang|rom|tu kerďal}}'' (''{{lang|rom|ker}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|d}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|'al}}'')
*past conditional - ''{{lang|rom|tu kerďalas}}'' (''{{lang|rom|ker}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|d}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|'al}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|as}}'')
*present imperative - ''{{lang|rom|ker!}}''

===== Class II =====
All the persons and numbers of present tense of the word ''{{lang|rom|te paťal}}'' in East Slovak Romani.<ref name="szl38"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!scope="col" | sg
!scope="col" | pl
|-
!scope="row" | 1.ps
|''{{lang|rom|me paťav}}''
|''{{lang|rom|amen paťas}}''
|-
!scope="row" | 2.ps
|''{{lang|rom|tu paťaha}}''
|''{{lang|rom|tumen paťan}}''
|-
!scope="row" | 3.ps
|''{{lang|rom|jov paťal}}''
|''{{lang|rom|jon paťan}}''
|}

Various tenses of the word ''{{lang|rom|te chal}}'', all in 2nd person singular.<ref name="mluvnice"/>
*present - ''{{lang|rom|tu džas}}''
*future - ''{{lang|rom|tu džaha}}''
*past imperfect = present conditional - ''{{lang|rom|tu džahas}}''
*past perfect - ''{{lang|rom|tu džaľom}}'' (irregular - regular form of ''{{lang|rom|tu paťas}}'' is ''{{lang|rom|tu paťaňom}}'')
*past conditional - ''{{lang|rom|tu džaľahas}}''
*present imperative - ''{{lang|rom|džaľa!}}''

===== Class III =====
All the persons and numbers of present tense of the word ''{{lang|rom|te pašľol}}'' in East Slovak Romani.<ref name="mluvnice"/> Note the added ''{{lang|rom|-uv-}}'', which is typical for this group.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!scope="col" | sg
!scope="col" | pl
|-
!scope="row" | 1.ps
|''{{lang|rom|me pašľuvav}}''
|''{{lang|rom|amen pašľuvas}}''
|-
!scope="row" | 2.ps
|''{{lang|rom|tu pašľos}}''
|''{{lang|rom|tumen pašľon}}''
|-
!scope="row" | 3.ps
|''{{lang|rom|jov pašľol}}''
|''{{lang|rom|jon pašľon}}''
|}

Various tenses of the same word, all in 2nd person singular again.<ref name="mluvnice"/>
*present - ''{{lang|rom|tu pašľos}}''
*future - ''{{lang|rom|tu pašľa}}''
*past imperfect = present conditional - ''{{lang|rom|tu pašľas}}''
*past perfect - ''{{lang|rom|tu pašľiľal}}'' (''{{lang|rom|pašľ}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|il}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|'al}}'')
*past conditional - ''{{lang|rom|tu pašľiľalas}}'' (''{{lang|rom|pašľ}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|il}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|'al}}'' + ''{{lang|rom|as}}'')
*present imperative - ''{{lang|rom|pašľuv!}}''<ref>Šebková, Žlnayová 1998, p. 107</ref>

==== Valency ====
[[Valency (linguistics)|Valency]] markers are affixed to the verb root either to increase or decrease valency.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}} There is dialectal variation as to which markers are most used; common valency-increasing markers are ''{{lang|rom|-av-}}'', ''{{lang|rom|-ar-}}'', and ''{{lang|rom|-ker}}'', and common valency-decreasing markers are ''{{lang|rom|-jov-}}'' and ''{{lang|rom|-áv-}}''.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}} These may also be used to derive verbs from nouns and adjectives.{{sfn|Matras|2006|loc=Morphology}}

Romani makes use of [[Valency (linguistics)#Changing valency|valency-changing]] morphology which increases or decreases the valency of its verbs.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Verb derivational morphology and event structure in Romani |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.495744 |publisher=University of Manchester |date=2008 |degree=Ph.D. |first=Barbara |last=Schrammel}}</ref>