Editing Roanoke Colony (section)

==Investigations into Roanoke==

===1595–1602: Walter Raleigh===
[[File:Sir Walter Raleigh oval portrait by Nicholas Hilliard.jpg|thumb|[[Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter Raleigh]]]]

Although White failed to locate his colonists in 1590, his report suggested they had simply relocated and might yet be found alive. However, it served Raleigh's purposes to keep the matter in doubt; so long as the settlers could not be proven dead, he could legally maintain his claim on Virginia.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=111}} Nevertheless, a 1594 petition was made to declare Ananias Dare [[legal death|legally dead]] so that his son, John Dare, could inherit his estate. The petition was granted in 1597.{{Sfn|Powell|1957|pp= 225–226}}

During Raleigh's first transatlantic voyage in 1595, he claimed to be in search of his lost colonists, although he later admitted this was misinformation to cover [[Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition|his search for El Dorado]]. On the return voyage, he sailed past the Outer Banks, and later claimed that weather had prevented him from landing.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=111}}

Raleigh later sought to enforce his [[monopoly]] on Virginia – based on the potential survival of the Roanoke colonists – when the price of [[sassafras]] skyrocketed. He funded a 1602 mission to the Outer Banks, with the stated goal of resuming the search.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=112–113}} Led by Samuel Mace, this expedition differed from previous voyages in that Raleigh bought his own ship and guaranteed the sailors' wages so that they would not be distracted by privateering.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 130}} However, the ship's itinerary and manifest indicate that Raleigh's top priority was harvesting sassafras far south of Croatoan Island. By the time Mace approached Hatteras, bad weather prevented them from lingering in the area.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=113}} In 1603, Raleigh was implicated in the [[Main Plot]] and arrested for treason against [[James VI and I|King James]], effectively ending his Virginia charter.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 147–148}}

===1603: Bartholomew Gilbert===
There was one final expedition in 1603 led by [[Bartholomew Gilbert]] with the intention of finding the Roanoke colonists. Their intended destination was Chesapeake Bay, but bad weather forced them to land in an unspecified location near there. The landing team, including Gilbert himself, was killed by a group of Native Americans for unknown reasons on July 29. The remaining crew were forced to return to England empty-handed.{{Sfn|Van Zandt|2008|p= 50}}

===1607–1609: John Smith===
[[File:Zúñiga Map by Ashe 1908.jpg|thumb|Reproduction of the Zúñiga Map]]

Following the establishment of the [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] settlement in 1607, [[John Smith (explorer)|John Smith]] was captured by the [[Powhatan]] and met with both their leader [[Powhatan (Native American leader)|Wahunsenacawh]] (often referred to as "Chief Powhatan") and his brother [[Opechancanough]]. They described to him a place called "Ocanahonan", where men wore European-style clothing; and "Anone", which featured walled houses. Later, after Smith returned to the colony, he made arrangements with Wowinchopunk, the king of the [[Paspahegh]], to investigate "Panawicke", another place reportedly inhabited by men in European dress. The colony produced a crude map of the region with labels for these villages. The map also featured a place called "Pakrakanick" with a note indicating, "Here remaineth four men clothed that came from Roonocok to Ocanahawan."{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 128–133}}

In the summer of 1608, Smith sent a letter about this information, along with the map, back to England. The original map is now lost, but a copy was obtained by Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, who passed it on to [[Philip III of Spain]]. The copy, now commonly referred to as the "Zúñiga Map", was rediscovered in 1890.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 129, 131}}

Smith planned to explore Pakrakanick, but a dispute with the Paspahegh ended the mission before it could begin. He also dispatched two search parties, possibly to look for the other villages reported to him, with instructions to find "the lost company of Sir Walter Rawley". Neither group could find any sign of the Roanoke colonists living in the area.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 151, 154}}

By May 1609, word had reached England's Royal Council for Virginia that the 1587 colonists had been massacred by Wahunsenacawh.{{Sfn|Virginia Council|1609|p= 17}} The source of this allegation is unknown. Machumps, Wahunsenacawh's brother-in-law, is known to have provided information about Virginia, and he had recently arrived in England.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=121}} It has been speculated that the same voyage could have also delivered a letter from Smith, although no evidence for this exists.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 365}}

Based on this intelligence, as well as Smith's earlier report, the Council drafted orders for the Jamestown colony to relocate. These orders recommended "Ohonahorn" (or "Oconahoen"), near the mouth of the [[Chowan River]], as a new base. Among the purported advantages of this location were proximity to "Riche Copper mines of Ritanoc" and "Peccarecamicke", where four of Raleigh's colonists were supposed to be held by a chieftain named "Gepanocon".{{Sfn|Virginia Council|1609|pp= 16–17}} These orders, along with the new acting governor, [[Thomas Gates (governor)|Thomas Gates]], were delayed due to the shipwreck of the ''[[Sea Venture]]'' at Bermuda. Gates arrived at Jamestown in May 1610, several months into the [[Starving Time]]. The crisis may have deterred the colonists from attempting the proposed relocation. An expedition was sent to the Chowan River, but there is no record of its findings.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=120–122}}

===1610–1612: William Strachey===
[[William Strachey]] arrived in Jamestown, along with Gates and Machumps, in May 1610. By 1612, he had returned to England, where he wrote ''The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia'', an overview of the Virginia territory.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=120–122}} He described "Peccarecamek", "Ochanahoen", "Anoeg", and "Ritanoe" in a manner consistent with Smith's map and the Virginia Council's orders to Gates. However, Strachey introduced additional details about "the slaughter at Roanoak".{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|pp= 26, 48}}

Strachey suggested that the lost colonists had spent twenty years living peacefully with a tribe beyond Powhatan territory. Wahunsenacawh, he claimed, carried out the unprovoked attack at the recommendation of his priests, shortly before the arrival of the Jamestown colonists. Based on this account, seven English – four men, two boys, and one woman – survived the assault and fled up the Chowan River. They later came under the protection of a chieftain named "Eyanoco", for whom they beat copper at "Ritanoe".{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|pp= 26, 85–86}}

''The Historie of Travaile'' never directly identifies the tribe that supposedly hosted the Roanoke colonists. However, Strachey did describe an attack against the Chesepians, in which Wahunsenacawh's priests warned him that a nation would arise in Chesapeake Bay to threaten his dominion.{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|p= 101}} It has been inferred that the colonists had relocated to Chesapeake, and both groups were massacred in the same attack.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 367–368}}

Strachey believed that the Powhatan religion was inherently [[Theistic Satanism|Satanic]], and that the priests might literally be in communion with [[Satan]]. He advocated for England to facilitate the Powhatans' conversion to Christianity. To that end, he recommended a plan in which King James would show mercy to the Powhatan people for the massacre of the Roanoke colonists, but demand revenge upon the priests.{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|p= 83–86}} However, the London Company did not publish ''The Historie of Travaile'', which fell into obscurity until 1849.{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|pp= {{mvar|xx}} }} There is no indication that any actions were taken against Wahunsenacawh or his priests in retaliation for the alleged massacre.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=123}}

===1625: Samuel Purchas===
[[File:1622 massacre jamestown de Bry.jpg|thumb|[[Indian massacre of 1622|Powhatan attack]] on Jamestown]]

After the Powhatan [[Indian massacre of 1622|attacked Jamestown]] in 1622, there was a dramatic shift in English commentary on Native Americans, as writers increasingly questioned their humanity. The [[London Company]] sponsored propaganda arguing that the massacre had justified [[genocide|genocidal]] retaliation, in order to assure potential backers that their investment in the colony would be safe.{{Sfn|Cain|2001|pp= 453–454}}{{Sfn|Kupperman|1977|p= 265}}

In this context, [[Samuel Purchas]] wrote ''Virginia's Verger'' in 1625, asserting England's right to possess and exploit its North American claim. He argued that the natives, as a race, had forfeited their right to the land through bloodshed, citing the 1586 ambush of Grenville's garrison, an alleged attack on White's colonists, and the 1622 Jamestown massacre. Purchas offered no evidence for his claim about the 1587 colony except to state, "Powhatan confessed to Cap. Smith, that hee had beene at their slaughter, and had divers utensills of theirs to shew."{{Sfn|Purchas|1625|pp=228–229}}

It is possible Smith related the story of Wahunsenacawh's confession to Purchas, as they are known to have spoken together. Smith's own writings, however, never mention the confession, leaving Purchas' claim to stand alone in what historian Helen Rountree dismisses as "an anti-Indian [[polemic]]".{{Sfn|Rountree|1990|pp= 21–22}} Even if taken at face value, the alleged confession is not persuasive, as Wahunsenacawh might have invented the story in an attempt to intimidate Smith. The European artifacts allegedly offered as "proof" of a raid on the Roanoke colonists could just as easily have been obtained from other sources, such as [[Ajacán Mission|Ajacán]].{{Sfn|Parramore|2001|p= 71}}

===1701–1709: John Lawson===
Sea traffic through Roanoke Island fell into decline in the 17th century, owing to the dangerous waters of the Outer Banks.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=126}} In 1672, the inlet between Hatorask and Croatoan Islands closed, and the resulting landmass became known as [[Hatteras Island]].{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|p= 180}}

During [[John Lawson (explorer)|John Lawson]]'s 1701–1709 exploration of northern [[Province of Carolina|Carolina]], he visited Hatteras Island and encountered the [[Hatteras Indians|Hatteras]] people.{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|p= 171}} Although there is evidence of European activity in the Outer Banks throughout the 17th century, Lawson was the first historian to investigate the region since White left in 1590.{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|pp= 181–182}} Lawson was impressed with the influence of English culture on the Hatteras. They reported that several of their ancestors had been white, and some of them had gray eyes, supporting this claim. Lawson theorized that members of the 1587 colony had assimilated into this community after they lost hope of regaining contact with England.{{Sfn|Lawson|1709|p= 62}} While visiting Roanoke Island itself, Lawson reported finding the remains of a fort, as well as English coins, firearms, and a powder horn.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=138}}