Editing Reindeer (section)

=== Antlers ===
[[File:ReindeerLoosingVelvet.jpg|thumb|upright|Losing the velvet layer under which a new antler is growing, an annual process]]
In most [[Deer|cervid]] species, only males grow [[antler]]s; the reindeer is the only cervid species in which females also grow them normally.<ref name=antlers>{{cite web |title=Fun Facts about Reindeer and Caribou |website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |date=2021-05-21 |url=https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/fun-facts-about-reindeer-and-caribou |access-date=2022-07-21}}</ref> [[Androgen]]s play an essential role in the antler formation of cervids. The antlerogenic genes in reindeer have more sensitivity to androgens in comparison with other cervids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Zeshan |title=Biological adaptations in the Arctic cervid, the reindeer (''Rangifer tarandus'') |journal=Science |date=2019 |volume=364 |issue=6446 |pages=eaav6312 |doi=10.1126/science.aav6312 |pmid=31221829 |bibcode=2019Sci...364.6312L |title-link=doi |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nasoori |first1=Alireza |date=2020 |title=Formation, structure, and function of extra-skeletal bones in mammals |url=https://archive.org/details/formation-structure-and-function-of-extra-skeletal-bones-in-mammals |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=986–1019 |doi=10.1111/brv.12597 |pmid=32338826 |s2cid=216556342}}</ref>

There is considerable variation among species and subspecies in the size of the antlers (e.g., they are rather small and spindly in the northernmost species and subspecies),<ref name=NorthAmerica/> but on average the bull's antlers are the second largest of any extant deer, after those of the male [[moose]]. In the largest subspecies, the antlers of large bulls can range up to {{cvt|100|cm}} in width and {{cvt|135|cm}} in beam length. They have the largest antlers relative to body size among living deer species.<ref name=antlers/> Antler size measured in number of points reflects the nutritional status of the reindeer and climate variation of its environment.<ref name="Smith1998">{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=B.E. |year=1998 |title=Antler size and winter mortality of elk: effects of environment, birth year, and parasites |journal=[[Journal of Mammalogy]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=1038–1044 |jstor=1383113 |doi=10.2307/1383113 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Mahony2011">{{cite journal |journal=[[Rangifer (journal)|Rangifer]] |volume=31 |pages=21–34 |number=1 |year=2011 |title=Morphological change in Newfoundland caribou: Effects of abundance and climate |first1=Shane P. |last1=Mahoney |first2=Jackie N. |last2=Weir |first3=J. Glenn |last3=Luther |first4=James A. |last4=Schaefer |first5=Shawn F. |last5=Morrison |url=https://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/rangifer/article/view/1917/1783 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103235739/http://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/rangifer/article/viewFile/1917/1783 |archive-date=3 November 2014 |doi=10.7557/2.31.1.1917 |doi-access=free |url-status=live}}</ref> The number of points on male reindeer increases from birth to 5 years of age and remains relatively constant from then on.<ref name="Mahony2011"/>{{rp|24}} "In male caribou, antler mass (but not the number of tines) varies in concert with body mass."<ref name="MarkussonFolstad1997">{{cite journal|last1=Markusson|first1=Eystein|last2=Folstad|first2=Ivar|title=Reindeer antlers: visual indicators of individual quality?|journal=Oecologia|date=1 May 1997|volume=110|issue=4|pages=501–507 |doi=10.1007/s004420050186|pmid=28307241|issn=0029-8549 |bibcode=1997Oecol.110..501M|s2cid=40646035}}</ref><ref name="ThomasBarry2005">{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=Don|last2=Barry |first2=Sam |title=Antler Mass of Barren-Ground Caribou Relative to Body Condition and Pregnancy Rate|journal=Arctic |date=2005 |volume=58|issue=3 |pages=241–246|jstor=40512709|citeseerx=10.1.1.541.4295}}</ref> While antlers of male woodland caribou are typically smaller than those of male barren-ground caribou, they can be over {{cvt|1|m}} across. They are flattened in cross-section, compact and relatively dense.<ref name="EC2012" /> Geist describes them as frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers.<ref name="Geist" /> Woodland caribou antlers are thicker and broader than those of the barren-ground caribou and their legs and heads are longer.<ref name="EC2012" /> Quebec-Labrador male caribou antlers can be significantly larger and wider than other woodland caribou. Central barren-ground male caribou antlers are perhaps the most diverse in configuration and can grow to be very high and wide. Osborn's caribou antlers are typically the most massive, with the largest circumference measurements.<ref name="Allen-1902">Allen, J.A. (1902) Description of a new caribou from northern British Columbia and remarks on ''Rangifer montanus''. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History XVI: 149-158.</ref>

The antlers' main beams begin at the brow "extending posterior over the shoulders and bowing so that the tips point forward. The prominent, palmate brow tines extend forward, over the face."<ref name="Virtual">{{citation |url= http://www.lcvirtualwildlife.ca/index.php/caribou |title= Caribou |work= Virtual Wildlife |location= Lethbridge, Alberta |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141103055205/http://www.lcvirtualwildlife.ca/index.php/caribou |archive-date= 3 November 2014}}</ref> The antlers typically have two separate groups of points, lower and upper.

Antlers begin to grow on male reindeer in March or April and on female reindeer in May or June. This process is called antlerogenesis. Antlers grow very quickly every year on the bulls. As the antlers grow, they are covered in thick [[Velvet antler|velvet]], filled with blood vessels and spongy in texture. The antler velvet of the [[barren-ground caribou]] and the [[boreal woodland caribou]] is dark chocolate brown.<ref name="NWT2012">{{citation |title=Species at Risk in the Northwest Territories 2012 |url=http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/reports/species_at_risk_in_the_nwt_2012_eng.pdf |access-date=31 October 2014 |author=GNWT |date=9 November 2023 |publisher=Government of Northwest Territories, Department of Environment and Natural Resources |isbn=978-0-7708-0196-0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001254/http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/reports/species_at_risk_in_the_nwt_2012_eng.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> The velvet that covers growing antlers is a highly vascularised skin. This velvet is dark brown on woodland or barren-ground caribou and slate-grey on Peary caribou and the [[Dolphin-Union caribou]] herd.<ref name="Virtual" /><ref name="GunnSeal1998">{{citation|last1=Gunn |first1=Anne |last2=Nishi |first2=J. |year=1998 |chapter= Review of information for Dolphin and Union caribou herd |title= Population and Habitat Viability Assessment Workshop for the Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) |series= Briefing book |editor-last1=Gunn |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Seal |editor-first2=U.S. |editor-last3=Miller |editor-first3=P.S. |location=Apple Valley, Minnesota |publisher=Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/UCN) |pages=1–22}}</ref><ref name="CanadaArctic2002">{{citation|year=2002a |url=http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpl/Traditional/traditional_frame.htm|title=Tuktu — Caribou |location=Guelph, Ontario|work=Canada's Arctic|access-date=17 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115024305/http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpl/Traditional/traditional_frame.htm|archive-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> Velvet lumps in March can develop into a rack measuring more than a {{cvt|1|m}} in length by August.<ref>{{cite book |title=State of Canada's forests |chapter=Woodland caribou |date=2000}}</ref>{{rp|88}}

[[File:Rangifer tarandus 04 MWNH 148.jpg|thumb|left|A ''R. tarandus'' skull]]
When the antler growth is fully grown and hardened, the velvet is shed or rubbed off. To [[Inuit]], for whom the caribou is a "culturally important [[keystone species]]", the months are named after landmarks in the caribou life cycle. For example, ''amiraijaut'' in the [[Igloolik]] region is "when velvet falls off caribou antlers."<ref name="CPL_2002_Tuktu_Caribou"/>

Male reindeer use their antlers to compete with other males during the mating season. Butler (1986) showed that the social requirements of caribou females during the rut determines the mating strategies of males and, consequently, the form of male antlers.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Butler |first=H.E. |date=1986 |title=Mating strategies of woodland caribou: ''Rangifer tarandus caribou'' |type=Doctoral thesis |place=Calgary, Alberta |publisher=University of Calgary}}</ref> In describing woodland caribou, which have a harem-defense mating system, SARA wrote, "During the rut, males engage in frequent and furious sparring battles with their antlers. Large males with large antlers do most of the mating."<ref name="SARA2014">{{citation|url=http://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=636#biology |title=Woodland caribou boreal population – biology |date=October 2014 |access-date=3 November 2014 |publisher=SARA}}</ref> Reindeer continue to migrate until the bulls have spent their back fat.<ref name="CPL_2002_Tuktu_Caribou"/><ref>{{cite book |title=This Is My Country, What's Yours?: A Literary Atlas of Canada |date=29 May 2007 |page=496 |first=Noah |last=Richler |author-link=Noah Richler|publisher=Random House |isbn=9781551994178}}</ref><ref name="IOHP">{{cite interview|series=Igloolik Oral History Project (IOHP) |title=Interview 065 |date=1991 |location=[[Igloolik]], [[Nunavut]]}}</ref> By contrast, barren-ground caribou males tend individual females and their fights are brief and much less intense; consequently, their antlers are long, and thin, round in cross-section and less branched and are designed more for show (or sexual attraction) than fighting.

In late autumn or early winter after the rut, male reindeer lose their antlers, growing a new pair the next summer with a larger rack than the previous year. Female reindeer keep their antlers until they calve. In the [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Arctic Circle]] populations, old bulls' antlers fall off in late December, young bulls' antlers fall off in the early spring, and cows' antlers fall off in the summer.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

When male reindeer shed their antlers in early to mid-winter, the antlered cows acquire the highest ranks in the feeding hierarchy, gaining access to the best forage areas. These cows are healthier than those without antlers.<ref name="Thing297">{{cite journal |last1=Thing |first1=Henning |last2=Olesen |first2=Carsten Riis |last3=Aastrup |first3=Peter |title=Antler possession by west Greenland female caribou in relation to population characteristics |journal=[[Rangifer (journal)|Rangifer]] |year=1986 |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=297 |doi=10.7557/2.6.2.662 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Calves whose mothers do not have antlers are more prone to disease and have a significantly higher mortality.<ref name="Thing297" /> Cows in good nutritional condition, for example, during a mild winter with good winter range quality, may grow new antlers earlier as antler growth requires high intake.<ref name="Thing297"/>

[[File:Mammals of northern Alaska on the Arctic slope (1956) Rangifer arcticus groenlandicus skull.png|thumb|upright|right|A ''R. t. platyrhynchus'' skull]]
According to a respected [[Igloolik]] elder, Noah Piugaattuk, who was one of the last outpost camp leaders,<ref name="nunatsiaqonline">{{cite news |title=Igloolik elders win northern science award |first=Sean |last=McKibbon |newspaper=Nunatsiaq News |location=Igloolik |date=21 January 2000 |access-date=30 October 2017 |url=http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/archives/nunavut000131/nvt20121_10.html |quote=Elders in Igloolik were recognized with a national science award last week for their efforts in preserving traditional Inuit knowledge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107002305/http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/archives/nunavut000131/nvt20121_10.html |archive-date=7 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> caribou (''tuktu'') antlers<ref name="CPL_2002_Tuktu_Caribou">{{citation |editor=Hebert, P.D.N. |editor2=Wearing-Wilde, J. |series=Canada's Polar Life (CPL) |publisher=University of Guelph |year=2002 |title=Tuktu — Caribou |quote="Since 1986, elders in the community have worked...the Igloolik Research Centre...to record their knowledge for posterity on paper and audio tape...Noah Piugaattuk contributed 70 to 80 hours of audio tape." Use of antlers (IOHP 037); |url=http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpl/Traditional/traditional/animals/caribou.htm|access-date=30 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020081500/http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpl/Traditional/traditional/animals/caribou.htm |archive-date=20 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{blockquote|...get detached every year...Young males lose the velvet from the antlers much more quickly than female caribou even though they are not fully mature. They start to work with their antlers just as soon as the velvet starts to fall off. The young males engage in fights with their antlers towards autumn...soon after the velvet had fallen off they will be red, as they start to get bleached their colour changes...When the velvet starts to fall off the antler is red because the antler is made from blood. The antler is the blood that has hardened; in fact, the core of the antler is still bloody when the velvet starts to fall off, at least close to the base.|Elder Noah Piugaattuk of Igloolik cited in "Tuktu — Caribou" (2002) "Canada's Polar Life" }}

According to the Igloolik Oral History Project (IOHP), "Caribou antlers provided the Inuit with a myriad of implements, from [[Snow knife|snow knives]] and shovels to drying racks and seal-hunting tools. A complex set of terms describes each part of the antler and relates it to its various uses".<ref name="CPL_2002_Tuktu_Caribou"/> Currently, the larger racks of antlers are used by Inuit in [[Inuit art]] as materials for carving. [[Iqaluit]]-based Jackoposie Oopakak's 1989 carving, entitled ''Nunali'', which means "place where people live", and which is part of the permanent collection of the [[National Gallery of Canada]], includes a massive set of caribou antlers on which he has intricately carved the miniaturized world of the Inuit where "Arctic birds, caribou, polar bears, seals, and whales are interspersed with human activities of fishing, hunting, cleaning skins, stretching boots, and travelling by dog sled and kayak...from the base of the antlers to the tip of each branch".<ref name="NGC_2017_Oopakak">{{citation |url=http://cybermuse.gallery.ca/cybermuse/enthusiast/acquisitions/2003-2004/Oopakak_text_e.jsp |title=Oopakak |date=n.d.|access-date=31 October 2017 |publisher=National Gallery of Canada |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012160006/http://cybermuse.gallery.ca/cybermuse/enthusiast/acquisitions/2003-2004/Oopakak_text_e.jsp |archive-date=12 October 2015 }}</ref>