Editing Reformation (section)

=== New theology ===

{{Main|Lutheranism}}
{{See also|Luther Bible}}

{{Quote box
 |title     = Luther on the Christian struggles toward God 
 |quote     = Christians should be exhorted to seek earnestly to follow Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, hells. And let them thus be more confident of entering heaven through many tribulations rather than through a false assurance of peace. 
 |author    = Martin Luther
 |source    = ''Ninety-five Theses''{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=120}}
 |align     = right
 |width     = 25%
 |bgcolor   = #F5FAFF
 |title_bg  = #CEE0F2
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As the historian [[Lyndal Roper]] notes, the "Reformation proceeded by a set of debates and arguments".{{sfn|Roper|2022|p=58}} Luther presented his views in public at the [[Heidelberg Disputation|observant Augustinians' assembly]] in [[Heidelberg]] on 26 April 1518.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=77–79}} Here he explained his "[[theology of the Cross]]" about a loving God who had [[Incarnation (Christianity)|become frail]] to save [[Fall of man|fallen]] humanity, contrasting it with what he saw as the scholastic "theology of glory" that in his view celebrated erudition and human acts.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=121}} It is uncertain when Luther's concept of [[sola fide|justification by faith alone]]—a central element of his theology—crystallised. He would later attribute it to his "tower experience"{{refn|group=note|"Luther himself
had said that he found his new insight "auff diser cloaca auff dem thurm" (on or over the toilet on the tower); however some historians dispute the account.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Leppin |first1=Volker |title=Setting Luther into His Historical Place: My Quarrels with the German Orthodoxy in Luther Research |journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal |date=2017 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=927–943 |doi=10.1086/SCJ4804009 |jstor=44817117 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44817117 |issn=0361-0160}}</ref>}} (1519),<ref>{{cite web |last1=Luther |first1=Martin |title=The Preface to the Complete Edition of Luther's Latin Works |url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/sshoemak/323/texts/Luther%20Tower%20Experience.htm |website=Modern History Sourcebook}}</ref> when he comprehended that God could freely declare even sinners righteous while he was thinking about the words of [[Paul the Apostle]] (d. 64 or 65)—"[[Romans 1:17|the just shall live by faith]]".{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=114–121}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=115–116}}

Urged by Luther's opponents, Pope Leo appointed the jurist [[Girolamo Ghinucci]] (d. 1541) and the theologian [[Sylvester Mazzolini]] (d. 1527) to inspect Luther's teaching.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=103}} Mazzolini argued that Luther had questioned papal authority by attacking the indulgences, while Luther concluded that only a fundamental reform could put an end to the abuse of indulgences.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=72–75}} Pope Leo did not excommunicate Luther because Leo did not want to alienate Luther's patron Frederick the Wise.{{refn|group=note|Luther's friendship with Frederick's secretary [[George Spalatin]] (d. 1545) secured him Frederick's favour, and {{nowrap|Leo X}} wanted to influence the forthcoming [[imperial election]] with Frederick's assistance.{{sfn|Roper|2022|p=58}}}} Instead, he appointed Cardinal [[Thomas Cajetan]] (d. 1534) to convince Luther to withdraw some of his theses. Cajetan met with Luther at [[Augsburg]] in October 1518.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=102}} The historian Berndt Hamm says that the meeting was the "historical point at which the opposition between the Reformation and Catholicism first emerged",{{refn|group=note|Historian Volker Leppin writes "anti-Catholicism does not lie at the root of Reformation, even if later on it obviously became part of the whole Reformation framework," but notes "the anti-Catholic tendency of Luther research".<ref name="auto"/>}} as Cajetan thought that believers accepting Luther's views of justification would no more obey clerical guidance.{{sfn|Hamm|1999|pp=75–76}}{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=79}}

Luther first expressed his sympathy for Jan Hus at a [[Leipzig Debate|disputation in Leipzig]] in June 1519. His case was reopened at the Roman Curia. Cajetan, Eck and other papal officials drafted the papal bull {{lang|la|[[Exsurge Domine]]}} ('Arise, O Lord') which was published on 15 June 1520. It condemned Luther's forty-one theses, and offered a sixty-day-long grace period to him to recant.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=103–104}} Luther's theology quickly developed. In a Latin treatise ''[[On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church]]'', he stated that only baptism and the [[Eucharist in Lutheranism|Eucharist]] could be regarded as sacraments, and priests were not members of a privileged class but servants of the community (hence they became called [[Minister (Christianity)|ministers]] from the Latin word for servant). His German manifesto ''[[To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation]]'' associated the papacy with the [[Antichrist]], and described the Holy See as "the worst whorehouse of all whorehouses" in reference to the funds flowing to the Roman Curia.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=82–84}}{{sfn|Roper|2022|pp=60–62}} It also challenged the Biblical justification of clerical celibacy.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=93}} Luther's study ''[[On the Freedom of a Christian]]'' consolidated his thoughts about the believers' inner freedom with [[Great Commandment|their obligation]] to care for their neighbours although he rejected the traditional teaching about good works.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=84–85}} The study is a characteristic example of Luther's enthusiasm for paradoxes.{{refn|group=note|For instance, he stated that "A Christian is a perfectly free lord of all, subject to none. A Christian is a perfectly dutiful servant of all, subject to all."{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=126–127}}}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=126–127}}

{{listen|type=music
| filename=Ein' Feste Burg.ogg
| title=''Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott'' ('A Mighty Fortress Is Our God') sung in German
| description=The German text of Luther's hymn {{lang|de|[[A Mighty Fortress Is Our God|Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott]]}} sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody.
}}

The papal nuncio [[Girolamo Aleandro]] (d. 1542) ordered the burning of Luther's books.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=104}} In response, Luther and his followers burned the papal bull along with a copy of the {{lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Canonici]]}}—the fundamental document of medieval ecclesiastic law—at Wittenberg. The [[Decet Romanum Pontificem|papal bull excommunicating Luther]] was published on 3 January 1521.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=83}}{{sfn|Roper|2022|p=62}} The newly elected [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] ({{reign|1519|1556}}) wanted to outlaw Luther at the [[Diet of Worms]], but could not make the decision alone.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=105}} The [[Holy Roman Empire]] was a confederation of [[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire|autonomous states]], and authority rested with the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diets]] where the [[Imperial Estate]]s assembled.{{sfn|Marshall|2009|p=12}} Frederick the Wise vetoed the [[imperial ban]] against Luther, and Luther was summoned to [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] to defend his case at the Diet in April 1521. Here he refused to recant stating that only arguments from the Bible could convince him that his works contained errors.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=105}}

After Luther and his supporters left the Diet, those who remained sanctioned the imperial ban, threatening Luther's supporters with imprisonment and confiscation of their property.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=85}} To save Luther's life but also to hide his involvement, Frederick arranged Luther's abduction on 4 May.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=105}} During his ten-month-long{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=85}} staged captivity at Frederick's castle of [[Wartburg]], Luther translated the [[New Testament]] to High German. The historian [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] describes the translation as an "extraordinary achievement that has shaped the German language ever since", adding that "Luther's gift was for seizing the emotion with sudden, urgent phrases".{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=128–129}} The translation would be published at the 1522 [[Leipzig Book Fair]] along with Luther's treatise ''On Monastic Vows'' that laid the theological foundations of the dissolution of monasteries.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=89}} Luther also composed [[List of hymns by Martin Luther|religious hymns]] in Wartburg. They would be first published in collections in 1524.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=129}} During Luther's absence, his co-workers, primarily [[Philip Melanchthon]] (d. 1560) and [[Andreas Karlstadt]] (d. 1541) assumed the leadership of Reformation in Wittenberg. Melanchthon consolidated Luther's thoughts into a coherent theological work titled {{lang|la|[[Loci communes]]}} ('Common Places').{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=135–136}}