Editing Radioactive waste (section)

=== Naturally occurring radioactive material ===
[[File:Uranium and thorium release from coal combustion.gif|thumb|upright=2.2|Annual release of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] [[radioisotopes]] from coal combustion, predicted by [[ORNL]] in 1993 to cumulatively amount to 2.9 Mt over the 1937–2040 period, from the combustion of an estimated 637 Gt of coal worldwide.<ref name="ornl">{{cite journal |author=Gabbard |first=Alex |year=1993 |title=Coal Combustion |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html |url-status=dead |journal=ORNL Review |language=en-us |location=Oak Ridge, Tennessee |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |volume=26 |issue=3–4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205103749/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html |archive-date=February 5, 2007}}</ref>]]

Substances containing natural radioactivity are known as [[NORM]] (naturally occurring radioactive material). After human processing that exposes or concentrates this natural radioactivity (such as mining bringing coal to the surface or burning it to produce concentrated ash), it becomes technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/sources.html |title=TENORM Sources &#124; Radiation Protection &#124; US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date=2006-06-28 |access-date=2013-08-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520064746/http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/sources.html |archive-date=2013-05-20}}</ref> Much of this waste is [[alpha particle]]-emitting matter from the decay chains of [[uranium]] and thorium. The main source of radiation in the human body is [[potassium]]-40 ([[potassium-40|<sup>40</sup>K]]), typically 17 milligrams in the body at a time and 0.4 milligrams/day intake.<ref>Idaho State University. [http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/natural.htm Radioactivity in Nature] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205001244/http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/natural.htm |date=2015-02-05 }}</ref> Most rocks, especially [[granite]], have a low level of radioactivity due to the potassium-40, thorium and uranium contained.

Usually ranging from 1 [[millisievert]] (mSv) to 13&nbsp;mSv annually depending on location, average radiation exposure from natural radioisotopes is 2.0&nbsp;mSv per person a year worldwide.<ref name="UNSCEAR">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. [http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503203201/http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf |date=2012-05-03 }}</ref> This makes up the majority of typical total dosage (with mean annual exposure from other sources amounting to 0.6&nbsp;mSv from medical tests averaged over the whole populace, 0.4&nbsp;mSv from [[cosmic ray]]s, 0.005&nbsp;mSv from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing, 0.005&nbsp;mSv occupational exposure, 0.002&nbsp;mSv from the [[Chernobyl disaster]], and 0.0002&nbsp;mSv from the nuclear fuel cycle).<ref name="UNSCEAR" />

TENORM is not regulated as restrictively as nuclear reactor waste, though there are no significant differences in the radiological risks of these materials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tenorm.com/regs2.htm |title=Regulation of TENORM |publisher=Tenorm.com |access-date=2013-08-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723203944/http://www.tenorm.com/regs2.htm |archive-date=2013-07-23}}</ref>

==== Coal ====
[[Coal]] contains a small amount of radioactive uranium, barium, thorium, and potassium, but, in the case of pure coal, this is significantly less than the average concentration of those elements in the [[Earth's crust]]. The surrounding strata, if shale or mudstone, often contain slightly more than average and this may also be reflected in the ash content of 'dirty' coals.<ref name="ornl" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202150006/http://www.uic.com.au/nip78.htm Cosmic origins of Uranium]. uic.com.au (November 2006)</ref> The more active ash minerals become concentrated in the [[fly ash]] precisely because they do not burn well.<ref name="ornl" /> The radioactivity of fly ash is about the same as black [[shale]] and is less than [[phosphate]] rocks, but is more of a concern because a small amount of the fly ash ends up in the atmosphere where it can be inhaled.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, [http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/energy/factshts/163-97/FS-163-97.html Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124173511/http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/energy/factshts/163-97/FS-163-97.html |date=2005-11-24 }}, ''Fact Sheet'' FS-163-1997, October 1997. Retrieved September 2007.</ref> According to U.S. [[National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements]] (NCRP) reports, population exposure from 1000-MWe power plants amounts to 490 [[person-rem/year]] for coal power plants, 100 times as great as nuclear power plants (4.8 person-rem/year). The exposure from the complete nuclear fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal is 136 person-rem/year; the corresponding value for coal use from mining to waste disposal is "probably unknown".<ref name="ornl" />

==== Oil and gas ====
Residues from the [[oil and gas industry]] often contain radium and its decay products. The sulfate scale from an oil well can be radium rich, while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contain [[radon]]. The radon decays to form solid radioisotopes which form coatings on the inside of pipework. In an oil processing plant, the area of the plant where [[propane]] is processed is often one of the more contaminated areas of the plant as radon has a similar boiling point to propane.<ref>[http://www.enprotec-inc.com/Presentations/NORM.pdf Survey & Identification of NORM Contaminated Equipment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220195742/http://www.enprotec-inc.com/Presentations/NORM.pdf |date=2006-02-20 }}. enprotec-inc.com.</ref>

Radioactive elements are an industrial problem in some oil wells where workers operating in direct contact with the crude oil and [[brine]] can be exposed to doses having negative health effects. Due to the relatively high concentration of these elements in the brine, its disposal is also a technological challenge. Since the 1980s, in the United States, the brine is however exempt from the dangerous waste regulations and can be disposed of regardless of radioactive or toxic substances content.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Syrian Job: Uncovering the Oil Industry's Radioactive Secret |url=https://desmog.co.uk/2020/04/29/syrian-job-oil-industry-radioactive-secret |last=Nobel |first=Justin |date=29 April 2020 |publisher=DeSmog UK |language=en |access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref>

==== Rare-earth mining ====
Due to natural occurrence of radioactive elements such as thorium and [[radium]] in [[Rare-earth element|rare-earth ore]], mining operations also result in production of waste and mineral deposits that are slightly radioactive.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/05/clean-energys-dirty-little-secret/307377/ |title=Clean Energy's Dirty Little Secret |last=Margonelli |first=Lisa |date=2009-05-01 |website=The Atlantic |language=en-US |access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> 
{{See also|Rare-earth element#Environmental considerations}}