Editing Portuguese language (section)

== Classification and related languages ==
[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|upright=1.65|right|Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Portuguese ([[Galician–Portuguese]]) within the context of its linguistic neighbors between the year 1000 and 2000]] [[File:Lenguas y dialectos iberorromances.PNG|thumb|upright=1.45|right|Map showing mostly contemporary [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] and [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] languages, as well many of their mainland European dialects (areas colored green, [[Aragonese language|gold]] or pink/purple represent languages deemed [[Endangered language|endangered]] by [[UNESCO]], so this may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese, [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and the [[Fala language|Fala]] as not only closely related but as [[dialect continuum]], though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira–[[Canarian Spanish|Canaries]] is not shown either).{{Image reference needed|date=November 2022}}]]

{{Main|Iberian Romance languages| Galician–Portuguese |Comparison of Spanish and Portuguese}}

Portuguese belongs to the [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] branch of the [[Romance language]]s, and it has special ties with the following members of this group:
* [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Fala language|Fala]] and [[Riverense Portuñol language|''portunhol do pampa'']] (the way ''riverense'' and its sibling dialects are referred to in Portuguese), its closest relatives.
* [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]] and [[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]] ([[Astur-Leonese languages]]). Mirandese is the only recognised regional language spoken in Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only official language in Portugal).
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Caló language|''calão'']] (the way ''caló'', language of the Iberian [[Romani people|Romani]], is referred to in Portuguese).

Portuguese and other Romance languages (namely [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]) share considerable similarities in both vocabulary and grammar. Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study before attaining strong comprehension in those Romance languages, and vice versa. However, Portuguese and Galician are fully mutually intelligible, and Spanish is considerably intelligible for lusophones, owing to their genealogical proximity and shared genealogical history as [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] ([[Ibero-Romance languages]]), historical contact between speakers and mutual influence, shared [[areal features]] as well as modern lexical, structural, and grammatical similarity (89%) between them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen
|first=John B.
|year=1989
|title=On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese
|journal=Hispania
|volume=72
|issue=4
|pages=848–852
|jstor=343562
|doi=10.2307/343562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
|last=Penny
|first=Ralph
|year=2000
|title=Variation and Change in Spanish
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-78045-2
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14
|page=14
|access-date=19 November 2020
|archive-date=27 April 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105110/https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalby
|first=Andrew
|year=1998
|title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages
|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-231-11568-1
|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb
|url-access=registration
|quote=how well do spanish speakers understand portuguese?.
|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb/page/501 501]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
|last1=Ginsburgh
|first1=Victor
|last2=Weber
|first2=Shlomo
|year=2011
|title=How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity
|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-691-13689-9
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90
|page=90
|access-date=19 November 2020
|archive-date=27 April 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105241/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Similar languages to Portuguese |url=https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |website=EZ Glot |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302192659/https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Portuñol]]/Portunhol, a form of [[code-switching]], has a more lively use and is more readily mentioned in popular culture in South America. Said code-switching is not to be confused with the Portuñol spoken on the borders of Brazil with Uruguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto do pampa}}) and Paraguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto dos [[Brasiguayos|brasiguaios]]}}), and of Portugal with Spain ({{lang|pt|[[barranquenho]]}}), that are Portuguese dialects spoken natively by thousands of people, which have been heavily influenced by Spanish.<ref name="Lipski">{{Cite conference |last=Lipski |first=John M |year=2006 |editor-last=Face |editor-first=Timothy L |editor2-last=Klee |editor2-first=Carol A |title=Too close for comfort? the genesis of 'portuñol/portunhol' |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |pages=1–22 |access-date=21 June 2015 |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225441/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Portuguese and Spanish are the only Ibero-Romance languages, and perhaps the only Romance languages with such thriving inter-language forms, in which visible and lively bilingual contact dialects and code-switching have formed, in which functional bilingual communication is achieved through attempting an approximation to the target foreign language (known as 'Portuñol') without a learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates communication. There is an emerging literature focused on such phenomena (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).<ref name="Lipski" />

=== Galician–Portuguese in Spain ===
{{see also|Reintegrationism}}
The closest relative of Portuguese is Galician, which is spoken in the autonomous community and historical nationality of Galicia ([[Spain]]). The two were part of a common dialect continuum during the Middle Ages, known today as [[Galician–Portuguese]], but they have diverged especially in pronunciation and vocabulary due to the political separation of [[County of Portugal|Portugal]] from [[Kingdom of Galicia|Galicia]]. There is, however, still a linguistic continuity consisting of the variant of Galician referred to as ''galego-português baixo-limiao'', which is spoken in several Galician and Portuguese villages within the transboundary biosphere reserve of [[Peneda-Gerês National Park|Gerês]]-[[Baixa Limia – Serra do Xurés|Xurés]]. It is "considered a rarity, a living vestige of the medieval language that ranged from [[Cantabria]] to [[Mondego River|Mondego]] [...]".<ref name="agal-gz.or">{{Cite web |title=A Fala Galego-Portuguesa da Baixa-Limia e Castro Laboreiro |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |trans-title=The Galician–Portuguese Speech of Baixa-Limia and Castro Laboreiro |language=pt |access-date=2018-10-05 |archive-date=13 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113080652/http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
As reported by UNESCO, due to the pressure of Spanish on the standard official version of Galician and centuries-old [[Hispanization|Castilianization]], the Galician language was on the verge of disappearing.<ref name="agal-gz.or" />

According to the UNESCO philologist Tapani Salminen, the proximity to Portuguese protects Galician.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 February 2009 |title=O galego deixa de ser unha das linguas 'en perigo' para a Unesco |language=gl |trans-title=Galician is no longer one of the "endangered" languages for Unesco |work=Galicia Hoxe |url=http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106122417/http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are noticeably closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. Within the EU, Galician, while not being a [[European Parliament]] official language, can be used and is in fact used by some European Parliament constituents due to its similarity with Portuguese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |title=O Galego já é oficial na UE [GL/PT] |publisher=Associaçom Galega da Lingua |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030142629/http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |archive-date=30 October 2004 }}</ref><ref name="moniz1">{{cite journal|last=Moniz|first=Alexandre|date=2021|url=https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|title=Galician: How to Kill a Language|website=Cambridge Engage|access-date=21 Sep 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921050757/https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Galician like Portuguese, uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility estimated at 85% is excellent between Galicians and Portuguese.<ref>{{e25|glg|Galician}}</ref> Despite political efforts in Spain to define them as separate languages, many linguists consider [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese to be co-dialects of the same language with regional variations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua|title=O galego e o português são a mesma língua/|date=27 January 2020|access-date=21 September 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921022638/https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="moniz1"/>

Another member of the Galician–Portuguese group, most commonly thought of as a Galician dialect, is spoken in the [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]] region in a western strip in [[Asturias]] and the westernmost parts of the provinces of [[Province of León|León]] and [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]], along the frontier with Galicia, between the [[Eo (river)|Eo]] and [[Navia (river)|Navia]] rivers (or more exactly Eo and Frexulfe rivers). It is called ''eonaviego'' or ''gallego-asturiano'' by its speakers.

The Fala language, known by its speakers as ''xalimés'', ''mañegu'', ''a fala de Xálima'' and ''chapurráu'' and in Portuguese as ''a fala de Xálima'', ''a fala da Estremadura'', ''o galego da Estremadura'', ''valego'' or ''galaico-estremenho'', is another descendant of Galician–Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns of [[Valverde del Fresno]] (''Valverdi du Fresnu''), [[Eljas]] (''As Ellas'') and [[San Martín de Trevejo]] (''Sa Martín de Trevellu'') in the autonomous community of [[Extremadura]], near the border with Portugal.

There are a number of other places in Spain in which the native language of the common people is a descendant of the Galician–Portuguese group, such as [[La Alamedilla]], [[Cedillo]] (''Cedilho''), [[Herrera de Alcántara]] (''Ferreira d'Alcântara'') and [[Olivenza]] (''Olivença''), but in these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream.

The diversity of dialects of the Portuguese language is known since the time of medieval Portuguese-Galician language when it coexisted with the Lusitanian-Mozarabic dialect, spoken in the south of Portugal. The dialectal diversity becomes more evident in the work of [[Fernão de Oliveira|Fernão d'Oliveira]], in the ''Grammatica da Lingoagem Portuguesa'', (1536), where he remarks that the people of Portuguese regions of Beira, Alentejo, Estremadura, and Entre Douro e Minho, all speak differently from each other. Also Contador d'Argote (1725) distinguishes three main varieties of dialects: the local dialects, the dialects of time, and of profession (work jargon). Of local dialects he highlights five main dialects: the dialect of Estremadura, of Entre-Douro e Minho, of Beira, of Algarve and of Trás-os-Montes. He also makes reference to the overseas dialects, the rustic dialects, the poetic dialect and that of prose.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

In the kingdom of Portugal, ''Ladinho'' (or ''Lingoagem Ladinha'') was the name given to the pure Portuguese romance language, without any mixture of Aravia or Gerigonça Judenga.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft/page/140 140]|quote=aravia.|title=Diccionario da lingua portugueza|publisher=Na typ. de M. P. de Lacerda|access-date=30 May 2015|last1=Silva|first1=António de Morais|year=1823}}</ref> While the term ''língua vulgar'' was used to name the language before D. Dinis decided to call it "Portuguese language",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osório |first=Jorge A. |date=1993 |title=D. Dinis: o Rei a Língua e o Reino |trans-title=D. Dinis: the King the Language and the Kingdom |url=http://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |hdl=10216/20003 |journal=Máthesis |language=pt |issue=2 |pages=17–36 |access-date=12 June 2015 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816084101/https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the erudite version used and known as Galician–Portuguese (the language of the Portuguese court) and all other Portuguese dialects were spoken at the same time. In a historical perspective the Portuguese language was never just one dialect. Just like today there is a standard Portuguese (actually two) among the several dialects of Portuguese, in the past there was Galician–Portuguese as the "standard", coexisting with other dialects.

=== Influence on other languages ===
[[File:St_Peter_Church_Melaka_3.jpg|thumb|An Old Portuguese [[memento mori]] memorial sign in [[Malacca City]]]] 
{{See also|List of English words of Portuguese origin|Loan words in Malayalam#Portuguese|Loan words in Indonesian|Japanese words of Portuguese origin|List of Malay loanwords|Portuguese loanwords in Sinhala|Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil#Portuguese|Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese language|Hindustani etymology#Loanwords from Portuguese|Gujarati language#Portuguese|Burmese language|Bengali vocabulary#Portuguese (পর্তুগিজ Pôrtugij)|Thai language#Portuguese-origin|Chittagonian language|Tok Pisin}}

Portuguese has provided [[loanword]]s to many languages, such as [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Manado Malay]], [[Malayalam]], [[Sri Lanka Tamils (native)|Sri Lankan Tamil]] and [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English (language)|English]], [[Hindi]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Tetum language|Tetum]], [[Tsonga language|Xitsonga]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Lanc-Patuá creole|Lanc-Patuá]], [[Esan people#Language|Esan]], [[Bandar Abbas|Bandari]] (spoken in Iran) and [[Sranan Tongo]] (spoken in Suriname). It left a strong influence on the ''[[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]]'', a [[Tupi–Guarani language]], which was the most widely spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken around [[Sikka Regency|Sikka]] in [[Flores]] Island, [[Indonesia]]. In nearby [[Larantuka]], Portuguese is used for prayers in [[Holy Week]] rituals.
The Japanese–Portuguese dictionary ''[[Nippo Jisho]]'' (1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries, the ''[[Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum]]'' (Annamite–Portuguese–Latin dictionary) of [[Alexandre de Rhodes]] (1651) introduced the modern [[Vietnamese alphabet|orthography of Vietnamese]], which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The [[Romanization]] of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding [[List of common Chinese surnames|Chinese surnames]]; one example is ''Mei''. During 1583–88 Italian Jesuits [[Michele Ruggieri]] and [[Matteo Ricci]] created a Portuguese–Chinese dictionary&nbsp;– the first ever European–Chinese dictionary.<ref name=camus>{{cite web|url=http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|title=Jesuits' Journeys in Chinese Studies|last=Camus|first=Yves|access-date=12 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924090942/http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="ricciDict">''Dicionário Português–Chinês : Pu Han ci dian: Portuguese–Chinese dictionary'', by Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca Nacional. {{ISBN|972-565-298-3}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C Partial preview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183226/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C |date=15 December 2022 }} available on [[Google Books]]</ref>

For instance, as [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese merchants]] were presumably the first to introduce the [[sweet orange]] in Europe, in several modern [[Indo-European languages]] the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian ''[[wikt:portokall#Albanian|portokall]]'', Bosnian (archaic) ''portokal'', ''prtokal'', Bulgarian [[wikt:портокал#Bulgarian|портокал]] (''portokal''), Greek [[wikt:πορτοκάλι#Greek|πορτοκάλι]] (''portokáli''), [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ''{{transliteration|mk|portokal}}'', Persian [[wikt:پرتقال#Persian|پرتقال]] (''porteghal''), and Romanian ''[[wikt:portocală#Romanian|portocală]]''.<ref name="plantname">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Citrus Names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |publisher=[[University of Melbourne]] |access-date=11 December 2012 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515001035/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="OstergrenBosse2011">{{cite book |author1=Ostergren, Robert C.  |author2=Le Bosse, Mathias  |name-list-style=amp |title=The Europeans, Second Edition: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA129 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-60918-140-6 |page=129}}</ref> Related names can be found in other languages,<!--"[[Amharic language|Amharic]] birtukan": NOT in sources--> such as Arabic [[wikt:البرتقال#Arabic|البرتقال]] (''burtuqāl''), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] [[wikt:ფორთოხალი#Georgian|ფორთოხალი]] (''p'ort'oxali''), Turkish ''[[wikt:portakal#Turkish|portakal]]'' and [[Amharic]] ''birtukan''.<ref name="plantname" /> Also, in southern [[Italian language|Italian dialects]] (e.g. [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]), an orange is ''[[:wikt:portogallo|portogallo]]'' or ''[[:wikt:it:purtuallo|purtuallo]]'', literally "(the) Portuguese (one)", in contrast to [[standard Italian]] ''arancia''.

[[File:2014 Lusophony Games map.svg|thumb|right|Participating countries of the [[Lusophony Games]]]]

=== Derived languages ===
{{Main|Portuguese-based creole languages}}

Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many [[pidgin]]s with varying amounts of Portuguese influence.

As each of these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged [[creole language]]s, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until the 18th century.

Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, namely [[Cape Verdean Creole]] and [[Papiamento]]. Portuguese-based creoles are spoken by over three million people worldwide, especially people of partial [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ancestry.