Editing Pontius Pilate (section)

==Apocryphal texts and legends==
Due to his role in Jesus' trial, Pilate became an important figure in both pagan and Christian propaganda in late antiquity. Perhaps the earliest apocryphal texts attributed to Pilate are denunciations of Christianity and of Jesus that claim to be Pilate's report on the crucifixion. According to [[Eusebius]] ([[Church History (Eusebius)|''Church History'']] 9.2.5), these texts were distributed during the persecution of Christians conducted by the emperor [[Maximinus II]] (reigned 308–313). None of these texts survive, but Tibor Grüll argues that their contents can be reconstructed from Christian apologetic texts.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|pp=156–157}}

Positive traditions about Pilate are frequent in much of Eastern Christianity, particularly in Egypt and Ethiopia, whereas negative traditions predominate in Western and Byzantine Christianity.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|pp=170–171}}{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=102}} Additionally, earlier Christian traditions portray Pilate more positively than later ones,{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|p=37}} a change which Ann Wroe suggests reflects the fact that, following the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire by the [[Edict of Milan]] (312), it was no longer necessary to deflect criticism of Pilate (and by extension of the Roman Empire) for his role in Jesus's crucifixion onto the Jews.{{sfn|Wroe|1999|p=329}} [[Bart Ehrman]], on the other hand, argues that the tendency in the Early Church to exonerate Pilate and blame the Jews prior to this time reflects an increasing "anti-Judaism" among Early Christians.{{sfn|Ehrman|2003|pp=20–22}} The earliest attestation of a positive tradition about Pilate comes from the late first-, early second-century Christian author [[Tertullian]], who, claiming to have seen Pilate's report to Tiberius, states Pilate had "become already a Christian in his conscience."{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=166}} An earlier reference to Pilate's records of Jesus's trial is given by the Christian apologist [[Justin Martyr]] around 160.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=94}} Tibor Grüll believes that this could be a reference to Pilate's actual records,{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=166}} but other scholars argue that Justin has simply invented the records as a source on the assumption that they existed without ever having verified their existence.{{sfn|Lémonon|2007|pp=232–233}}{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|p=22}}

===New Testament Apocrypha===
Beginning in the fourth century, a large body of Christian apocryphal texts developed concerning Pilate, making up one of the largest groups of surviving [[New Testament Apocrypha]].{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|p=25}} Originally, these texts served both to unburden Pilate of guilt for the death of Jesus as well as to provide more complete records of Jesus's trial.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=93–94}} The apocryphal [[Gospel of Peter]] completely exonerates Pilate for the crucifixion, which is instead performed by [[Herod Antipas]].{{sfn|Koester|1980|p=126}} Moreover, the text makes explicit that while Pilate washes his hands of guilt, neither the Jews nor Herod do so.{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|p=26}} The Gospel includes a scene in which the centurions who had been guarding Jesus' tomb report to Pilate that Jesus has been resurrected.{{sfn|Koester|1980|pp=128–129}}

The fragmentary third-century [[Manichaean]] ''[[Gospel of Mani]]'' has Pilate refer to Jesus as "the Son of God" and telling his centurions to "[k]eep this secret".{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|p=27}}

In the most common version of the passion narrative in the apocryphal [[Gospel of Nicodemus]] (also called the ''Acts of Pilate''), Pilate is portrayed as forced to execute Jesus by the Jews and as distraught at having done so.{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|p=4}} One version claims to have been discovered and translated by a Jewish convert named Ananias, portraying itself as the official Jewish records of the crucifixion.{{sfn|Dilley|2010|pp=592–594}} Another claims that the records were made by Pilate himself, relying on reports made to him by Nicodemus and [[Joseph of Arimathea]].{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|p=6}} Some Eastern versions of the Gospel of Nicodemus claim that Pilate was born in Egypt, which likely aided his popularity there.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=168}} The Christian Pilate literature surrounding the Gospel of Nicodemus includes at least fifteen late antique and early medieval texts, called the "[[Pilate cycle]]", written and preserved in various languages and versions and dealing largely with Pontius Pilate.{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|pp=9–11, 419–519}} Two of these include purported reports made by Pilate to the emperor (the ''[[Anaphora Pilati]]'' to Emperor Tiberius and the [[Letter of Pilate to Claudius]]) on the crucifixion, in which Pilate recounts Jesus' death and resurrection, blaming the Jews.{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|p=7}} Another purports to be an angry reply by Tiberius, condemning Pilate for his role in Jesus' death, the [[Letter of Tiberius to Pilate]].{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|p=7}} Another early text is an apocryphal [[Letter of Herod to Pilate|letter attributed to "Herod"]] (a composite character of the various Herods in the Bible), which claims to respond to a letter from Pilate in which Pilate spoke of his remorse for Jesus' crucifixion and of having had a vision of the risen Christ; "Herod" asks Pilate to pray for him.{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=10–11}}

In the so-called ''[[Book of the Cock]]'', a late-antique apocryphal passion Gospel only preserved in [[Ge'ez]] (Ethiopic) but translated from Arabic,{{sfn|Piovanelli|2003|pp=427–428}} Pilate attempts to avoid Jesus's execution by sending him to Herod and writing further letters arguing with Herod not to execute Jesus. Pilate's family become Christians after Jesus miraculously cures Pilate's daughters of their deaf-muteness. Pilate is nevertheless forced to execute Jesus by the increasingly angry crowd, but Jesus tells Pilate that he does not hold him responsible.{{sfn|Piovanelli|2003|p=430}} This book enjoys "a quasi-canonical status" among Ethiopian Christians to this day and continues to be read beside the canonical gospels during [[Holy Week]].{{sfn|Piovanelli|2003|pp=433–434}}

====Pilate's death in the apocrypha====
{{anchor|Mors Pilati}}
Seven of the Pilate texts mention Pilate's fate after the crucifixion: in three, he becomes a very positive figure, while in four he is presented as diabolically evil.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|pp=159–160}} A fifth-century [[Syriac language|Syriac]] version of the ''Acts of Pilate'' explains Pilate's conversion as occurring after he has blamed the Jews for Jesus' death in front of Tiberius; prior to his execution, Pilate prays to God and converts, thereby becoming a Christian martyr.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|pp=166–167}} In the Greek ''[[Paradosis Pilati]]'' (5th century),{{sfn|Izydorczyk|1997|p=7}} Pilate is arrested for the crime of executing Jesus, although he has since converted to be a follower of Christ.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=167}} His beheading is accompanied by a voice from heaven calling him blessed and saying he will be with Jesus at the [[Second Coming]].{{sfn|Burke|2018|p=266}} The ''Evangelium Gamalielis'', possibly of medieval origin and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and [[Ge'ez]],{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=160}} says Jesus was crucified by Herod, whereas Pilate was a true believer in Christ who was martyred for his faith; similarly, the ''Martyrium Pilati'', possibly medieval and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez,{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=160}} portrays Pilate, as well as his wife and two children, as being crucified twice, once by the Jews and once by Tiberius, for his faith.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=167}}

In addition to the report on Pilate's suicide in Eusebius, Grüll notes three Western apocryphal traditions about Pilate's suicide. In the ''[[Cura sanitatis Tiberii]]'' (dated variously 5th to 7th century),{{sfn|Gounelle|2011|p=233}} the emperor Tiberius is healed by an image of Jesus brought by [[Saint Veronica]], [[Saint Peter]] then confirms Pilate's report on Jesus's miracles, and Pilate is exiled by the emperor [[Nero]], after which he commits suicide.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=162}} A similar narrative plays out in the ''[[Vindicta Salvatoris]]'' (8th century).{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=162}}{{sfn|Gounelle|2011|pp=243–244}} In the ''[[Mors Pilati]]'' (perhaps originally 6th century, but recorded {{circa|1300 AD}}),{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|p=36}} Pilate was forced to commit suicide and his body thrown in the Tiber. However, the body is surrounded by demons and storms, so that it is removed from the Tiber and instead cast into the Rhone, where the same thing happens. Finally, the corpse is taken to [[Lausanne]] in modern Switzerland and buried in an isolated lake (perhaps [[Lake Lucerne]]), where demonic visitations continue to occur.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|pp=162–163}}{{sfn|Ehrman|Pleše|2011|p=559&ndash;567}}

===Later legends===
[[File:Pontius Pilatus angebl Grabmal Vienne (IZ 48-1867 S 266 JResch).jpg|thumb|19th-century lithograph of the supposed tomb of Pontius Pilate in [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]], France. In fact, it is a decorated {{Lang|la|spina|italics=yes}} from a Roman [[circus (building)|circus]].{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=164}}]]
Beginning in the eleventh century, more extensive legendary biographies of Pilate were written in Western Europe, adding details to information provided by the bible and apocrypha.{{sfn|Martin|1973|p=99}} The legend exists in many different versions and was extremely widespread in both Latin and the vernacular, and each version contains significant variation, often relating to local traditions.{{sfn|Martin|1973|p=102}}

====Early "biographies"====
The earliest extant legendary biography is the ''De Pilato'' of {{circa|1050}}, with three further Latin versions appearing in the mid-twelfth century, followed by many vernacular translations.{{sfn|Martin|1973|pp=102–103, 106}} Howard Martin summarizes the general content of these legendary biographies as follows: a king who was skilled in [[astrology]] and named Atus lived in [[Mainz]]. The king reads in the stars that he will bear a son who will rule over many lands, so he has a miller's daughter named Pila brought to him whom he impregnates; Pilate's name thus results from the combination of the names ''Pila'' with ''Atus''.

A few years later, Pilate is brought to his father's court where he kills his half-brother. As a result, he is sent as a hostage to Rome, where he kills another hostage. As punishment he is sent to the island of Pontius, whose inhabitants he subjugates, thus acquiring the name Pontius Pilate. King Herod hears of this accomplishment and asks him to come to Palestine to aid his rule there; Pilate comes but soon usurps Herod's power.{{sfn|Martin|1973|pp=101–102}}

The trial and judgment of Jesus then happens as in the gospels. The emperor in Rome is suffering from a terrible disease at this time, and hearing of Christ's healing powers, sends for him only to learn from [[Saint Veronica]] that Christ has been crucified, but she possesses a cloth with the image of his face. Pilate is taken as a prisoner with her to Rome to be judged, but every time the emperor sees Pilate to condemn him, his anger dissipates. This is revealed to be because Pilate is wearing Jesus's coat; when the coat is removed, the Emperor condemns him to death, but Pilate commits suicide first. The body is first thrown in the Tiber, but because it causes storms it is then moved to Vienne, and then thrown in a lake in the high Alps.{{sfn|Martin|1973|pp=102–103}}

One important version of the Pilate legend is found in the ''[[Golden Legend]]'' by [[Jacobus de Voragine]] (1263–1273 AD), one of the most popular books of the later Middle Ages.{{sfn|Martin|1973|p=109}} In the ''Golden Legend'', Pilate is portrayed as closely associated with [[Judas]], first coveting the fruit in the orchard of Judas's father Ruben, then granting Judas Ruben's property after Judas has killed his own father.{{sfn|Hourihane|2009|p=234}}

====Western Europe====
Several places in Western Europe have traditions associated with Pilate. The cities of [[Lyon]] and [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]] in modern France claim to be Pilate's birthplace: Vienne has a ''Maison de Pilate'', a ''Prétoire de Pilate'' and a ''Tour de Pilate''.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=104}} One tradition states that Pilate was banished to Vienne where a Roman ruin is associated with his tomb; according to another, Pilate took refuge in a mountain (now called [[Mount Pilatus]]) in modern Switzerland, before eventually committing suicide in a lake on its summit.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=164}} This connection to Mount Pilatus is attested from 1273 AD onwards, while [[Lake Lucerne]] has been called "Pilatus-See" (Pilate Lake) beginning in the fourteenth century.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=104–105}} A number of traditions also connected Pilate to Germany. In addition to Mainz, [[Bamberg]], [[Hausen, Upper Franconia]] were also claimed to be his place of birth, while some traditions place his death in the [[Saarland]].{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=105–106}}

The town of [[Tarragona]] in modern Spain possesses a first-century Roman tower, which, since the eighteenth-century, has been called the "Torre del Pilatos", in which Pilate is claimed to have spent his last years.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=164}} The tradition may go back to a misread Latin inscription on the tower.{{sfn|Grüll|2010|p=165}} The cities of [[Huesca]] and [[Seville]] are other cities in Spain associated with Pilate.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=104}} Per a local legend,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.com/travel/destinations/uk-travel/scotland-travel/pontius-pilates-scottish-roots-a-joke-rk0qms770t6 |title=Pontius Pilate's Scottish roots 'a joke' |newspaper=[[The Times]] |first=Mark |last=Macaskill |date=2010-01-03 |url-access=limited |access-date=2020-01-17 }}</ref> the village of [[Fortingall]] in Scotland claims to be Pilate's birthplace, but this is almost certainly a 19th-century invention—particularly as the Romans did not invade the British Isles until 43.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/mystery-of-the-5-000-year-old-yew-of-fortingall-1-4292618 |newspaper=The Scotsman |title=Mystery of the '5,000-year-old' yew of Fortingall |first=Alison |last=Campsie |date=2016-11-17 |access-date=2020-01-17 }}</ref>

====Eastern Christianity====
Pilate was also the subject of legends in Eastern Christianity. The Byzantine chronicler [[George Kedrenos]] ({{circa|1100}}) wrote that Pilate was condemned by Caligula to die by being left in the sun enclosed in the skin of a freshly slaughtered cow, together with a chicken, a snake, and a monkey.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|pp=102–103}} In a legend from medieval [[Rus' (region)|Rus']], Pilate attempts to save [[Saint Stephen]] from being executed; Pilate, his wife and children have themselves baptized and bury Stephen in a gilded silver coffin. Pilate builds a church in the honor of Stephen, Gamaliel, and Nicodemus, who were martyred with Stephen. Pilate dies seven months later.{{sfn|Demandt|2012|p=106}} In the medieval [[Slavonic Josephus]], an [[Old Church Slavonic]] translation of Josephus, with legendary additions, Pilate kills many of Jesus's followers but finds Jesus innocent. After Jesus heals Pilate's wife of a fatal illness, the Jews bribe Pilate with 30 talents to crucify Jesus.{{sfn|Demandt|1999|pp=69–70}}