Editing Orchestra (section)

==Organization==
[[File:Laredo Philharmonic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Conducting an orchestra]]
Among the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy. Every instrumental group (or section) has a '''principal''' who is generally responsible for leading the group and playing orchestral solos. The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, with the second violins playing in lower registers than the first violins, playing an [[accompaniment]] part, or harmonizing the melody played by the first violins. The principal first violin is called the [[concertmaster]] (or orchestra "leader" in the U.K.) and is not only considered the leader of the string section, but the second-in-command of the entire orchestra, behind only the conductor. The concertmaster leads the pre-concert [[musical tuning|tuning]] and handles musical aspects of orchestra management, such as determining the bowings for the violins or the entire string section. The concertmaster usually sits to the conductor's left, closest to the audience. There is also a principal second violin, a principal viola, a principal cello, and a principal bass.

The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low brass section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. While the oboe often provides the tuning note for the orchestra (due to a 300-year-old convention), there is generally no designated principal of the woodwind section (though in woodwind ensembles, the flute is often the presumptive leader).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Luan |last2=Davidson |first2=Jane W. |date=1 January 2003 |title=An investigation of members' roles in wind quintets |journal=Psychology of Music |volume=31 |pages=53–74 |doi=10.1177/0305735603031001323|s2cid=145766109 }}</ref> Instead, each principal confers with the others as equals in the case of musical differences of opinion. Most sections also have an assistant principal (or co-principal or associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an assistant concertmaster, who often plays a [[tutti]] part in addition to replacing the principal in their absence.

A section string player plays in [[unison]] with the rest of the section, except in the case of divided (''divisi'') parts, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" seated players. Where a solo part is called for in a string section, the section leader invariably plays that part. The section leader (or principal) of a string section is also responsible for determining the bowings, often based on the bowings set out by the concertmaster. In some cases, the principal of a string section may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing their instrument (e.g., the double-bass section). Principals of a string section will also lead entrances for their section, typically by lifting the bow before the entrance, to ensure the section plays together. Tutti wind and brass players generally play a unique but non-solo part. Section percussionists play parts assigned to them by the principal percussionist.

In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a conductor, although early orchestras did not have one, giving this role to the [[concertmaster]] or the [[harpsichord]]ist playing the [[Basso Continuo|continuo]]. Some modern orchestras also do [[Conductorless orchestra|without conductors]], particularly smaller orchestras and those specializing in historically accurate (so-called "period") performances of [[baroque music|baroque]] and earlier music.

The most frequently performed repertoire for a [[symphony]] orchestra is Western [[European classical music|classical music]] or opera. However, orchestras are used sometimes in [[popular music]] (e.g., to accompany a rock or pop band in a concert), extensively in [[film music]], and increasingly often in [[video game music]]. Orchestras are also used in the [[symphonic metal]] genre. The term "orchestra" can also be applied to a jazz ensemble, for example in the performance of [[big band|big-band]] music.

===Selection and appointment of members===
In the 2000s, all tenured members of a professional orchestra normally [[audition]] for positions in the ensemble.<!-- Personal friends of the conductor and pals of principal players are exempted from this rule :) --> Performers typically play one or more solo pieces of the auditionee's choice, such as a movement of a concerto, a solo [[J.S. Bach|Bach]] movement, and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature that are advertised in the audition poster (so the auditionees can prepare). The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging parts and solos from the orchestral literature. Orchestral auditions are typically held in front of a panel that includes the conductor, the [[concertmaster]], the principal player of the section for which the auditionee is applying, and possibly other principal players.

The most promising candidates from the first round of auditions are invited to return for a second or third round of auditions, which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates. Performers may be asked to [[sight read]] orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is a ''test week'', in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the conductor and principal players to see if the individual can function well in an actual rehearsal and performance setting.

There are a range of different employment arrangements. The most sought-after positions are permanent, [[tenure]]d positions in the orchestra. Orchestras also hire musicians on contracts, ranging in length from a single concert to a full season or more. Contract performers may be hired for individual concerts when the orchestra is doing an exceptionally large late-Romantic era orchestral work, or to substitute for a permanent member who is sick. A professional musician who is hired to perform for a single concert is sometimes called a "sub". Some contract musicians may be hired to replace permanent members for the period that the permanent member is on [[parental leave]] or [[disability]] leave.

====History of gender in ensembles====
Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of men. The first [[women in music|women members hired in professional orchestras]] have been [[harp]]ists. The [[Vienna Philharmonic]], for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than comparable orchestras (the other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by ''[[Gramophone (magazine)|Gramophone]]'' in 2008).<ref name="The world's greatest orchestras">{{cite web|url=http://www.gramophone.co.uk/editorial/the-world%E2%80%99s-greatest-orchestras |title=The world's greatest orchestras |work=gramophone.co.uk |date= 24 October 2012|access-date=29 April 2013}}</ref> The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the [[Berlin Philharmonic]].<ref>{{cite news |first=James R. |last=Oestreich |author-link=James R. Oestreich |date=16 November 2007 |title=Berlin in lights: The woman question |department=Arts Beat |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/16/berlin-in-lights-the-woman-question/}}</ref> In February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, [[Dieter Flury]], told ''[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk]]'' that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity ({{Lang|de|emotionelle Geschlossenheit}}) that this organism currently has".<ref name=WDR5>{{cite AV media |series=Westdeutscher Rundfunk Radio&nbsp;5 |title=Musikalische Misogynie |date=13 February 1996 |medium=radio talk program |url=http://www.osborne-conant.org/wdrgerm.htm |people=transcribed by Regina Himmelbauer; translation by William Osborne |chapter=English translation |chapter-url=http://www.osborne-conant.org/wdr.htm}}</ref> In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of [[maternity leave]] would be a problem.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Vienna Philharmonic's letter of response to the Gen-Mus list |website=Osborne-conant.org |date=25 February 1996 |url=http://www.osborne-conant.org/posts/schuster.htm |access-date=5 October 2013}}</ref>

In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the [[National Organization for Women]] and the [[International Alliance for Women in Music]]. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28&nbsp;February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."<ref name=JP>{{cite news |first=Jane |last=Perlez |date=28 February 1997 |title=Vienna Philharmonic lets women join in harmony |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/28/world/vienna-philharmonic-lets-women-join-in-harmony.html}}</ref> As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova, became one of the orchestra's [[concertmaster]]s in 2008, the first woman to hold that position in that orchestra.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vienna opera appoints first ever female concertmaster <!-- Bot generated title --> |date=8 May 2008 |website=[[France 24]] |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20080508-vienna-opera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria&navi=CULTURE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028131919/http://www.france24.com/en/20080508-vienna-opera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria%26navi%3DCULTURE |archive-date=28 October 2013 }}</ref> In 2012, women made up 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president [[Clemens Hellsberg]] said the VPO now uses completely screened [[blind audition]]s.<ref>{{cite news |first=James R. |last=Oestreich |author-link=James R. Oestreich |date=28 February 1998 |title=Even legends adjust to time and trend – even the Vienna Philharmonic |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/28/arts/even-legends-adjust-to-time-and-trend-even-the-vienna.html}}</ref>

In 2013, an article in ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]'' stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership — women outnumber men in the [[New York Philharmonic]]'s violin section — and several renowned ensembles, including the [[National Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Detroit Symphony]], and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...&nbsp;are still predominantly male."<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Hannah |last=Levintova |date=September 2013 |title=Here's why you seldom see women leading a symphony |magazine=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |url=https://www.motherjones.com/media/2013/09/women-conductors-gap-charts-marin-alsop-proms |access-date=24 December 2015}}</ref> A 2014 BBC article stated that the "...&nbsp;introduction of 'blind' auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."<ref>{{cite web |last=Burton |first=Clemency |date=21 October 2014 |department=Culture |title=Why aren't there more women conductors? |publisher=BBC |url=http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20130821-why-so-few-women-conductors |access-date=24 December 2015}}</ref>