Editing Mark Antony (section)

==Master of the Roman East==

===Division of the republic===
[[File:Roman-Empire-42BC.png|thumb|450px|Map of the [[Roman Republic]] in 42 BC after the [[Battle of Philippi]]: {{colbegin|colwidth=200px}}
{{legend|#81EE5B|Antony}}{{legend|#C19666|Lepidus}}{{legend|#DE8DE0|Octavian}}{{legend|#FF925E|Triumvirs collectively}}
{{legend|#7D87FF|Sextus Pompey}}{{legend|#ED1C24|Parthian Empire}}{{legend|#FED250|Rome's client kingdoms}}{{legend|#FF8C8C|Ptolemaic Egypt}}{{colend}}]]

The victory at Philippi left the members of the triumvirate as masters of the republic, save [[Sextus Pompey]] in Sicily. Upon returning to Rome, the triumvirate repartitioned rule of Rome's provinces among themselves, with Antony as the clear senior partner. He received the largest distribution, governing all of the Eastern provinces while retaining [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] in the West. Octavian's position improved, as he received Spain, which was taken from Lepidus. Lepidus was then reduced to holding only Africa, and he assumed a clearly tertiary role in the triumvirate. Rule over Italy remained undivided, but Octavian was assigned the difficult and unpopular task of demobilizing their veterans and providing them with land distributions in Italy.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 854</ref><ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 253</ref> Antony assumed direct control of the East while he installed one of his lieutenants as the ruler of Gaul. During his absence, several of his supporters held key positions in Rome to protect his interests there.

The East was in need of reorganization. In addition, Rome contended with the [[Parthian Empire]] for dominance of the [[Near East]]. The Parthian threat to the triumvirate's rule was urgent due to the fact that the Parthians supported the ''liberatores'' in the recent civil war, aid which included the supply of troops at Philippi.<ref>Bivar, 1968, pp. 56–57</ref> As ruler of the East, Antony also assumed responsibility for overseeing Caesar's planned invasion of Parthia to avenge the defeat of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in 53 BC.

In 42 BC, the Roman East was composed of several directly controlled provinces and [[Client state|client kingdoms]]. The provinces included [[Roman Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], [[Bithynia et Pontus|Bithynia]], [[Roman Cilicia|Cilicia]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], and [[Creta et Cyrenaica|Cyrenaica]]. Approximately half of the eastern territory was controlled by Rome's client kingdoms, nominally independent kingdoms subject to Roman direction. These kingdoms included:
* [[Odrysian Kingdom|Odrysian Thrace]] in [[Eastern Europe]]
* The [[Bosporan Kingdom]] along the northern coast of the [[Black Sea]]
* [[Galatia]], [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Artaxiad dynasty|Armenia]], and several smaller kingdoms in [[Asia Minor]]
* [[Hasmonean dynasty|Judea]], [[Commagene]], and the [[Nabataean kingdom]] in the [[Middle East]]
* [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] in Africa

===Activities in the East===
{{further|Early life of Cleopatra VII|Reign of Cleopatra VII}}
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Antony spent the winter of 42 BC in [[Athens]], where he ruled generously towards the Greek cities. A proclaimed ''[[philhellene]]'' ("Friend of all things Greek"), Antony supported Greek culture to win the loyalty of the inhabitants of the Greek East. He attended religious festivals and ceremonies, including initiation into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]],<ref>Hinard 2000, p. 854</ref> a secret cult dedicated to the worship of the goddesses [[Demeter]] and [[Persephone]]. Beginning in 41 BC, he traveled across the [[Aegean Sea]] to [[Anatolia]], leaving his friend [[Lucius Marcius Censorinus (consul 39 BC)|Lucius Marcius Censorius]] as governor of [[Roman Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]]. Upon his arrival in [[Ephesus]] in Asia, Antony was worshiped as the god [[Dionysus]] born anew.<ref>Lepelley, 1998, p. 435</ref> He demanded heavy taxes from the Hellenic cities in return for his pro-Greek culture policies, but exempted those cities which had remained loyal to Caesar during the [[Caesar's Civil War|civil war]] and compensated those cities which had suffered under [[Liberators' civil war|Caesar's assassins]], including [[Rhodes]], [[Lycia et Pamphylia|Lycia]], and [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]. He granted pardons to all Roman nobles living in the East who had supported Pompey, except for Caesar's assassins.

[[File:Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|400px|''Antony and Cleopatra'' (1883) by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] depicting Antony's meeting with Cleopatra in 41 BC.]]Ruling from Ephesus, Antony consolidated Rome's hegemony in the East, receiving envoys from Rome's client kingdoms and intervening in their dynastic affairs, extracting enormous financial "gifts" from them in the process. Though King [[Deiotarus]] of [[Galatia]] supported Brutus and Cassius following Caesar's assassination, Antony allowed him to retain his position. He also confirmed [[Ariarathes X of Cappadocia|Ariarathes X]] as king of [[Cappadocia]] after the execution of his brother [[Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia]] by Cassius before the [[Battle of Philippi]]. In [[Hasmonean Judea]], several [[Israelite]] delegations complained to Antony of the harsh rule of [[Phasael]] and [[Herod the Great|Herod]], the sons of Rome's assassinated chief minister in the territory of [[Judaea]], who was an [[Edom]]ite called [[Antipater the Idumaean]]. After Herod offered him a large financial gift, Antony confirmed the brothers in their positions. Subsequently, influenced by the beauty and charms of [[Glaphyra (hetaera)|Glaphyra]], the widow of [[Archelaus (father of Archelaus of Cappadocia)|Archelaüs]] (formerly the high priest of [[Comana (Cappadocia)|Comana]]), Antony deposed Ariarathes X, and appointed Glaphyra's son, [[Archelaus of Cappadocia|Archelaüs]], to rule Cappadocia.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''Roman History'', 49.32; [[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'', 5.7; ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', [https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgre01smituoft#page/262/mode/2up vol. I, p. 263] ("Archelaus", Nos. 3, 4), [https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgree02smituoft#page/272/mode/2up vol. II, p. 272] ("Glaphyra").</ref>

In October 41, Antony requested Rome's chief eastern vassal, the queen of Ptolemaic Egypt [[Cleopatra]], meet him at Tarsus in Cilicia. Antony had first met a young Cleopatra while campaigning in Egypt in 55 BC and again in 48 BC when Caesar had backed her as queen of Egypt over the claims of her half-sister [[Arsinoe IV of Egypt|Arsinoe]]. Cleopatra would bear Caesar a son, [[Caesarion]], in 47 BC and the two were living in Rome as Caesar's guests until his assassination in 44 BC. After Caesar's assassination, Cleopatra and Caesarion returned to Egypt, where she named the child as her co-ruler. In 42 BC, the Triumvirate, in recognition for Cleopatra's help towards [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]] in opposition to the Liberators, granted official recognition to Caesarion's position as king of Egypt. Arriving in Tarsus aboard her magnificent ship, Cleopatra invited Antony to a grand banquet to solidify their alliance.{{#tag:ref |Ancient writers (e.g. Appian, ''Civil Wars'' 5.8.1) place the beginning of their famous romance at this meeting with Antony totally surrendering to Cleopatra's beauty but modern historians reject this notion as retrospective historical propaganda on the part of [[Augustus]].|group="note"}} As the most powerful of Rome's eastern vassals, Egypt was indispensable in Rome's planned military invasion of the [[Parthian Empire]]. At Cleopatra's request, Antony ordered the execution of Arsinoe, who, though marched in Caesar's [[Roman triumph|triumphal parade]] in 46 BC,<ref>Dio, 43.19.2–3; Appian, 2.101.420</ref> had been granted sanctuary at the [[temple of Artemis]] in Ephesus. Antony and Cleopatra then spent the winter of 41 BC together in [[Alexandria]]. Cleopatra bore Antony twin children, [[Alexander Helios]] and [[Cleopatra Selene II]], in 40 BC, and a third, Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 36 BC. Antony also granted formal control over Cyprus, which had been under Egyptian control since 47 BC during the turmoil of [[Caesar's civil war]], to Cleopatra in 40 BC as a gift for her loyalty to Rome.<ref>Mitford, pp. 1289–1297.</ref>

Antony, in his first months in the East, raised money, reorganized his troops, and secured the alliance of Rome's client kingdoms. He also promoted himself as Hellenistic ruler, which won him the affection of the Greek peoples of the East but also made him the target of Octavian's propaganda in Rome. According to some ancient authors, Antony led a carefree life of luxury in Alexandria.<ref>Plutarch, Antony, 28–30</ref><ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', l. 48.</ref> Upon learning the [[Parthian Empire]] had invaded Rome's territory in early 40 BC, Antony left Egypt for Syria to confront the invasion. However, after a short stay in [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], he was forced to sail with his army to Italy to confront Octavian due to [[Perusine War|Octavian's war against Antony's wife and brother]].

===Fulvia's civil war===
{{See also|Perusine War}}

Following the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, while Antony was stationed in the East, Octavian had authority over the West.{{#tag:ref |Lepidus, though still a member of the Triumvirate, was relegated to a junior position within the three-man dictatorship as Antony and Octavian established themselves.|group="note"}} Octavian's chief responsibility was distributing land to tens of thousands of Caesar's veterans who had fought for the Triumvirate. Additionally, tens of thousands of veterans who had fought for the Republican cause in the war also required land grants. This was necessary to ensure they would not support a political opponent of the triumvirate.<ref>Eck, p. 18</ref> However, the triumvirs did not possess sufficient state-controlled land to allot to the veterans. This left Octavian with two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who might back a military rebellion against the triumvirate's rule. Octavian chose the former.<ref>Eck, pp. 18–19.</ref> As many as eighteen Roman towns through Italy were affected by the confiscations of 41 BC, with entire populations driven out.<ref name="Eck, pg 19">Eck, p. 19</ref>

Led by [[Fulvia]], the wife of Antony, the senators grew hostile towards Octavian over the issue of the land confiscations. According to the ancient historian [[Cassius Dio]], Fulvia was the most powerful woman in Rome at the time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Cic.+Phil.+2.48&fromdoc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0021|title=M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, The fourteen orations against Marcus Antonius (Philippics), THE SECOND SPEECH OF M. T. CICERO AGAINST MARCUS ANTONIUS. CALLED ALSO THE SECOND PHILIPPIC., section 48|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=20 May 2023|archive-date=12 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612150827/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Cic.+Phil.+2.48&fromdoc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0021|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Dio, while [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 48 BC)|Publius Servilius Vatia]] and [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]] were the consuls for the year 41 BC, real power was vested in Fulvia. As the mother-in-law of Octavian and the wife of Antony, no action was taken by the senate without her support.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/48*.html|title=Cassius Dio – Book 48|website=penelope.uchicago.edu|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=22 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122175355/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/48%2A.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Fearing Octavian's land grants would cause the loyalty of the Caesarian veterans to shift away from Antony, Fulvia traveled constantly with her children to the new veteran settlements in order to remind the veterans of their debt to Antony.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0232:book=5:chapter=2:section=14|title=Appian, The Civil Wars, BOOK V, CHAPTER II, section 14|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=20 May 2023|archive-date=12 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612151500/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0232:book=5:chapter=2:section=14|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0232:book=5:chapter=3:section=19|title=Appian, The Civil Wars, BOOK V, CHAPTER III, section 19|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=20 May 2023|archive-date=26 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526150606/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0232:book=5:chapter=3:section=19|url-status=live}}</ref> Fulvia also attempted to delay the land settlements until Antony returned to Rome, so that he could share credit for the settlements. With the help of Antony's brother, the consul of 41&nbsp;BC [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]], Fulvia encouraged the senate to oppose Octavian's land policies.

[[File:Roman-Empire-39BC-sm.png|thumb|450px|Map of the [[Roman Republic]] in 39 BC after the [[Treaty of Brundisium]] and the [[Treaty of Misenum]]: {{colbegin|colwidth=200px}}
{{legend|#81EE5B|Antony}}{{legend|#C19666|Lepidus}}{{legend|#DE8DE0|Octavian}}{{legend|#FF925E|Triumvirs collectively}}
{{legend|#7D87FF|Sextus Pompey}}{{legend|#ED1C24|Parthian Empire}}{{legend|#FED250|Rome's client kingdoms}}{{legend|#FF8C8C|Ptolemaic Egypt}}{{colend}}]]

The conflict between Octavian and Fulvia caused great political and social unrest throughout Italy. Tensions escalated into open war, however, when Octavian divorced [[Claudia (wife of Octavian)|Claudia]], Fulvia's daughter from her first husband [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]]. Outraged, Fulvia, supported by Lucius, raised an army to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. According to the ancient historian [[Appian]], Fulvia's chief reason for the war was her jealousy of Antony's affairs with Cleopatra in Egypt and desire to draw Antony back to Rome.<ref name="auto2"/> Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian and Lepidus, however, as the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries.<ref name="Eck, pg 19" /> Lucius and Fulvia, supported by their army, marched on Rome and promised the people an end to the triumvirate in favor of Antony's sole rule. However, when Octavian returned to the city with his army, the pair were forced to retreat to [[Perusia]] in Etruria. Octavian placed the city under siege while Lucius waited for Antony's legions in [[Gaul]] to come to his aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0232:book=5:chapter=4:section=32|title=Appian, The Civil Wars, BOOK V, CHAPTER IV, section 32|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=20 May 2023|archive-date=26 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526150614/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0232:book=5:chapter=4:section=32|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/> Away in the East and embarrassed by Fulvia's actions, Antony gave no instructions to his legions.<ref>David, 2000, p. 254</ref>{{#tag:ref |It is also speculated that Antony's legions, composed largely of Caesarian veterans, did not wish to fight the adoptive son of their former general.|group="note"}} Without reinforcements, Lucius and Fulvia were forced to surrender in February 40 BC. While Octavian pardoned Lucius for his role in the war and even granted him command in Spain as his chief lieutenant there, Fulvia was forced to flee to Greece with her children. With the war over, Octavian was left in sole control over Italy. When Antony's governor of Gaul died, Octavian took over his legions there, further strengthening his control over the West.<ref>Southern, 2001, p. 78</ref>

Despite the Parthian Empire's invasion of Rome's eastern territories, Fulvia's civil war forced Antony to leave the East and return to Rome in order to secure his position. Meeting her in Athens, Antony rebuked Fulvia for her actions before sailing on to Italy with his army to face Octavian, laying siege to [[Brundisium]]. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their shared service under Caesar. The legions under their command followed suit.<ref>Eck, 2003, p. 21.</ref><ref>Eder, 2005, p. 19</ref> Meanwhile, in [[Sicyon]], Fulvia died of a sudden and unknown illness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0007:chapter=30:section=3|title=Plutarch, Antony, chapter 30, section 3|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=20 May 2023|archive-date=12 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612150804/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0007:chapter=30:section=3|url-status=live}}</ref> Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their soldiers allowed the triumvirs to effect a reconciliation through a new power-sharing agreement in September 40 BC. The Roman world was redivided, with Antony receiving the Eastern provinces, Octavian the Western provinces, and Lepidus retained his junior position as governor of Africa. This agreement, known as the ''Treaty of Brundisium'', reinforced the triumvirate and allowed Antony to begin preparing for Caesar's long-awaited campaign against the [[Parthian Empire]]. As a symbol of their renewed alliance, Antony married [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia]], Octavian's sister, in October 40 BC.

===Antony's Parthian War===
{{main|Antony's Parthian War}}

====Roman–Parthian relations====
[[File:Parthia 001ad.jpg|thumb|450px|A map of the [[Parthian Empire]] and [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. Both states shared their western borders along the Euphrates River with Rome.]]

The rise of the [[Parthian Empire]] in the 3rd century BC and Rome's expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean during the 2nd century BC brought the two powers into direct contact, causing centuries of tumultuous and strained relations. Though periods of peace developed cultural and commercial exchanges, war was a constant threat. Influence over the [[buffer state]] of the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]], located to the north-east of [[Roman Syria]], was often a central issue in the Roman-Parthian conflict. In 95 BC, [[Tigranes the Great]], a Parthian ally, became king. Tigranes would later aid [[Mithridatic Wars|Mithradates of Pontus against Rome]] before being decisively defeated by [[Pompey]] in 66 BC.<ref>Scullard, 1984, p. 106</ref> Thereafter, with his son [[Artavasdes II of Armenia|Artavasdes]] in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC. Rome then released Artavasdes, who succeeded his father as king.

In 53 BC, Rome's governor of Syria, [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], led an expedition across the [[Euphrates]] River into Parthian territory to confront the Parthian Shah [[Orodes II]]. Artavasdes II offered Crassus the aid of nearly forty thousand troops to assist his Parthian expedition on the condition that Crassus invade through Armenia as the safer route.<ref>Plutarch. ''Life of Crassus''. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html 19.1–3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410020040/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html |date=10 April 2020 }}.</ref> Crassus refused, choosing instead the more direct route by crossing the Euphrates directly into desert Parthian territory. Crassus' actions proved disastrous as his army was defeated at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] by a numerically inferior Parthian force. Crassus' defeat forced Armenia to shift its loyalty to Parthia, with Artavasdes II's sister marrying Orodes' son and heir [[Pacorus I of Parthia|Pacorus]].<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Crassus'' 19; 22; 33.</ref>

In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his intentions to invade Parthia and restore Roman power in the East. His reasons were to punish the Parthians for assisting Pompey in the [[Caesar's Civil War|recent civil war]], to avenge Crassus' defeat at Carrhae, and especially to match the glory of [[Alexander the Great]] for himself.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 820</ref> Before Caesar could launch his campaign, however, he was assassinated. As part of the compromise between Antony and the Republicans to restore order following Caesar's murder, [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]] was assigned the governorship of Syria and command over Caesar's planned Parthian campaign. The compromise did not hold, however, and the republicans were forced to flee to the East. The republicans directed [[Quintus Labienus]] to attract the Parthians to their side in the [[Liberators' civil war|resulting war against Antony and Octavian]]. After the ''liberatores'' were defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]], Labienus joined the Parthians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morello |first=Antonio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk_YgEACAAJ |title=Titus Labienus et Cingulum, Quintus Labienus Parthicus Volume 9 of Nummus et historia |publisher=Circolo numismatico Mario Rasile |year=2005 |access-date=16 November 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819124625/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk_YgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coins of Rome about Parthia: Quintus Labienus (42–39 B.C.) |url=http://www.parthia.com/labienus.htm |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803183606/http://www.parthia.com/labienus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite Rome's internal turmoil during the time, the Parthians did not immediately benefit from the [[power vacuum]] in the East due to Orodes II's reluctance despite Labienus' urgings to the contrary.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 857">Hinard, 2000, p. 857</ref>

In the summer of 41 BC, Antony, to reassert Roman power in the East, conquered [[Palmyra]] on the Roman-Parthian border.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 857" /> Antony then spent the winter of 41 BC in Alexandria with Cleopatra, leaving only two legions to defend the Syrian border against Parthian incursions. The legions, however, were composed of former Republican troops and Labienus convinced Orodes II to invade.

====Parthian Invasion====
{{main|Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC}}
[[File:Aureus of Antony & Octavian, 40 BC.jpg|thumb|295x295px|Roman [[aureus]] bearing the portraits of Marcus Antonius (left) and [[Octavian]]us (right), issued to celebrate their reconciliation in October 40&nbsp;BC.]]
A Parthian army, led by Orodes II's eldest son [[Pacorus I of Parthia|Pacorus]], invaded [[Roman Syria|Syria]] in early 40 BC. Labienus, the Republican ally of Brutus and Cassius, accompanied him to advise him and to rally the former Republican soldiers stationed in Syria to the Parthian cause. Labienus recruited many of the former Republican soldiers to the Parthian campaign in opposition to Antony. The joint Parthian–Roman force, after initial success in Syria, separated to lead their offensive in two directions: Pacorus marched south toward [[Hasmonean Judea]] while Labienus crossed the [[Taurus Mountains]] to the north into [[Roman Cilicia|Cilicia]]. Labienus conquered southern [[Anatolia]] with little resistance. The Roman governor of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]], a partisan of Antony, was forced to flee his province, allowing Labienus to recruit the Roman soldiers stationed there. For his part, Pacorus advanced south to [[Phoenicia]] and [[Syria Palaestina|Palestine]]. In [[Hasmonean Judea]], the exiled prince [[Antigonus the Hasmonean|Antigonus]] allied himself with the Parthians. When his brother, Rome's client king [[Hyrcanus II]], refused to accept Parthian domination, he was deposed in favor of Antigonus as Parthia's client king in Judea. Pacorus' conquest had captured much of the Syrian and Palestinian interior, with much of the Phoenician coast occupied as well. The city of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] remained the last major Roman outpost in the region.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 858">Hinard, 2000, p. 858</ref>

Antony, then in Egypt with Cleopatra, did not respond immediately to the Parthian invasion. Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of [[Perusine War|the civil war between his wife and Octavian]], he was forced to return to Italy with his army to secure his position in Rome rather than defeat the Parthians.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 858" /> Instead, Antony dispatched [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]] to check the Parthian advance. Arriving in the East in spring 39 BC, Ventidius surprised Labienus near the [[Taurus Mountains]], claiming victory at [[Battle of the Cilician Gates|the Cilician Gates]]. Ventidius ordered Labienus executed as a traitor and the formerly rebellious Roman soldiers under his command were reincorporated under Antony's control. He then met a Parthian army at the border between Cilicia and Syria, defeating it and killing a large portion of the Parthian soldiers at [[Battle of Amanus Pass|the Amanus Pass]]. Ventidius' actions temporarily halted the Parthian advance and restored Roman authority in the East, forcing Pacorus to abandon his conquests and return to Parthia.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 877</ref>

In the spring of 38 BC, the Parthians resumed their offensive with Pacorus leading an army across the Euphrates. Ventidius, in order to gain time, leaked [[disinformation]] to Pacorus implying that he should cross the Euphrates River at their usual ford. Pacorus did not trust this information and decided to cross the river much farther downstream; this was what Ventidius hoped would occur and gave him time to get his forces ready.<ref>Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', pp.  1239</ref> The Parthians faced no opposition and proceeded to the town of [[Gindarus]] in [[Cyrrhestica]] where Ventidius' army was waiting. At the [[Battle of Cyrrhestica]], Ventidius inflicted an overwhelming defeat against the Parthians which resulted in the death of Pacorus. Overall, the Roman army had achieved a complete victory with Ventidius' three successive victories forcing the Parthians back across the Euphrates.<ref>Dando-Collins, 2008, pp. 36–39</ref> Pacorus' death threw the Parthian Empire into chaos. Shah Orodes II, overwhelmed by the grief of his son's death, appointed his younger son [[Phraates IV]] as his successor. However, Phraates IV assassinated Orodes II in late 38 BC, succeeding him on the throne.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 49, 23</ref><ref>Hinard, 2000, pp. 879, 883</ref>

Ventidius feared Antony's wrath if he invaded Parthian territory, thereby stealing his glory; so instead he attacked and subdued the eastern kingdoms, which had revolted against Roman control following the disastrous defeat of Crassus at Carrhae.<ref>Plutarch, ''Antony'', Chapter 34</ref> One such rebel was King [[Antiochus I of Commagene|Antiochus]] of [[Commagene]], whom he besieged in [[Samosata]]. Antiochus tried to make peace with Ventidius, but Ventidius told him to approach Antony directly. After peace was concluded, Antony sent Ventidius back to Rome where he celebrated a [[Roman triumph|triumph]], the first Roman to triumph over the Parthians.{{#tag:ref |After celebrating his triumph, Ventidius disappears from the historical record.|group="note"}}

====Conflict with Sextus Pompey====
[[File:Mark Antony and Octavia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Antony and Octavia on the [[obverse]] of a [[tetradrachm]] issued at Ephesus in 39 BC. Antony and his brother-in-law, Octavian, enacted a new treaty that year which redivided control over the Roman world.]]

While Antony and the other triumvirs ratified the [[Treaty of Brundisium]] to redivide the Roman world among themselves, the rebel [[Sextus Pompey]], the son of Caesar's rival [[Pompey the Great]], was largely ignored. From his stronghold on [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicily]], he continued his piratical activities across Italy and blocked the shipment of grain to Rome. The lack of food in Rome undermined the triumvirate's political support. This pressure forced the triumvirs to meet with Sextus in early 39 BC.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 69</ref>

While Octavian wanted an end to the ongoing blockade of Italy, Antony sought peace in the West in order to make the Triumvirate's legions available for his service in his planned campaign against the Parthians. Though the Triumvirs rejected Sextus' initial request to replace Lepidus as the third man in the triumvirate, they did grant other concessions. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Misenum]], Sextus was allowed to retain control over Sicily and [[Corsica et Sardinia|Sardinia]], with the provinces of [[Corsica et Sardinia|Corsica]] and [[Achaea (Roman province)|Greece]] being added to his territory. He was also promised a future position with the [[Augur|Priestly College of Augurs]] and the consulship for 35 BC. In exchange, Sextus agreed to end his naval blockade of Italy, supply Rome with grain, and halt his piracy of Roman merchant ships.<ref>Ward, Allen M., et al. A History of the Roman People. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 2003.</ref> However, the most important provision of the Treaty was the end of the [[proscription]] the trimumvirate had begun in late 43 BC. Many of the proscribed senators, rather than face death, fled to Sicily seeking Sextus' protection. With the exception of those responsible for Caesar's assassination, all those proscribed were allowed to return to Rome and promised compensation. This caused Sextus to lose many valuable allies as the formerly exiled senators gradually aligned themselves with either Octavian or Antony. To secure the peace, Octavian betrothed [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]], Octavian's three-year-old nephew and Antony's stepson, to Sextus' daughter [[Pompeia (daughter of Sextus Pompeius)|Pompeia]].<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 73</ref> With peace in the West secured, Antony planned to retaliate against Parthia. Under an agreement with Octavian, Antony would be supplied with extra troops for his campaign. With this military purpose on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with Octavia, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Dionysus]] in 39 BC.

The peace with Sextus was short-lived, however. When Sextus demanded control over Greece as the agreement provided, Antony demanded the province's tax revenues be to fund the Parthian campaign. Sextus refused.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 77</ref> Meanwhile, Sextus' admiral [[Menas (freedman)|Menas]] betrayed him, shifting his loyalty to Octavian and thereby granting him control of Corsica, Sardinia, three of Sextus' legions, and a larger naval force. These actions worked to renew Sextus' blockade of Italy, preventing Octavian from sending the promised troops to Antony for the Parthian campaign. This new delay caused Antony to quarrel with Octavian, forcing [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia]] to mediate a truce between them. Under the Treaty of Tarentum, Antony provided a large naval force for Octavian's use against Sextus while Octavian promised to raise new legions for Antony to support his invasion of Parthia.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 95</ref> As the term of the Triumvirate was set to expire at the end of 38&nbsp;BC, the two unilaterally extended their term of office another five years until 33&nbsp;BC without seeking approval of the senate or the assemblies. To seal the Treaty, Antony's elder son [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus]], then only six years old, was betrothed to Octavian's only daughter [[Julia the Elder|Julia]], then only an infant. With the Treaty signed, Antony returned to the East, leaving Octavia in Italy.

====Reconquest of Judea====
With [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]] returned to Rome in triumph for his defensive campaign against the Parthians, Antony appointed [[Gaius Sosius]] as the new governor of Syria and Cilicia in early 38 BC. Antony, still in the West negotiating with Octavian, ordered Sosius to depose [[Antigonus II Mattathias|Antigonus]], who had been installed in the recent Parthian invasion as the ruler of [[Hasmonean Judea]], and to make [[Herod the Great|Herod]] the new Roman client king in the region. Years before in 40 BC, the Roman senate had proclaimed Herod "King of the Jews" because Herod had been a loyal supporter of [[Hyrcanus II]], Rome's previous client king before the Parthian invasion, and was from a [[Herodian dynasty|family with long standing connections to Rome]].<ref>Armstrong, p. 126</ref> The Romans hoped to use Herod as a bulwark against the Parthians in the coming campaign.<ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'', 1.14.4</ref>

Advancing south, Sosius captured the island-city of [[Arwad|Aradus]] on the coast of [[Phoenicia]] by the end of 38 BC. The following year, the Romans [[Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)|besieged Jerusalem]]. After a forty-day siege, the Roman soldiers stormed the city and, despite Herod's pleas for restraint, acted without mercy, pillaging and killing all in their path, prompting Herod to complain to Antony.<ref>Rocca, 2008, pp. 45–47</ref> Herod finally resorted to bribing Sosius and his troops in order that they would not leave him "king of a desert".<ref>Josephus, The Jewish Wars, 1:355</ref> Antigonus was forced to surrender to Sosius, and was sent to Antony for the [[Roman triumph|triumphal procession]] in Rome. Herod, however, fearing that Antigonus would win backing in Rome, bribed Antony to execute Antigonus. Antony, who recognized that Antigonus would remain a permanent threat to Herod, ordered him beheaded in [[Antioch]]. Now secure on his throne, Herod would rule the [[Herodian Kingdom]] until his death in 4 BC, and would be an ever-faithful client king of Rome.

====Parthian Campaign====
{{main|Antony's Parthian War}}

With the triumvirate renewed in 38 BC, Antony returned to Athens in the winter with his new wife [[Octavia Major|Octavia]], the sister of Octavian. With the assassination of the Parthian king [[Orodes II]] by his son [[Phraates IV]], who then seized the Parthian throne, in late 38 BC, Antony prepared to invade Parthia himself.[[File:Syd 1197.jpg|thumb|Marcus Antonius & Octavia Minor (sister of Augustus) Cistophorus - 39 BC]]Antony, however, realized Octavian had no intention of sending him the additional legions he had promised under the Treaty of Tarentum. To supplement his own armies, Antony instead looked to Rome's principal vassal in the East: his lover Cleopatra. In addition to significant financial resources, Cleopatra's backing of his Parthian campaign allowed Antony to amass the largest army Rome had ever assembled in the East. Wintering in [[Antioch]] during 37, Antony's combined Roman–Egyptian army numbered some 100,000, including 60,000 soldiers from sixteen legions, 10,000 cavalry from Spain and Gaul, plus an additional 30,000 auxiliaries.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mark Antony, a biography |last=Huzar |first=Eleanor Goltz |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1978 |url=https://archive.org/details/markantonybiogra00huza_0/page/176/mode/1up |page=176|isbn=9780816608638 }}</ref> The size of his army indicated Antony's intention to conquer Parthia, or at least receive its submission by capturing the Parthian capital of [[Ecbatana]]. Antony's rear was protected by Rome's client kingdoms in Anatolia, Syria, and Judea, while the client kingdoms of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Commagene would provide supplies along the march.

Antony's first target for his invasion was the [[kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. Ruled by King [[Artavasdes II of Armenia]], Armenia had been an ally of Rome since the defeat of [[Tigranes the Great]] by [[Pompey the Great]] in 66 BC during the [[Third Mithridatic War]]. However, following [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]]'s defeat at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in 53 BC, Armenia was forced into an alliance with Parthia due to Rome's weakened position in the East. Antony dispatched [[Publius Canidius Crassus]] to Armenia, receiving Artavasdes II's surrender without opposition. Canidius then led an invasion into the [[South Caucasus]], subduing [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]]. There, Canidius forced the Iberian King [[Pharnavaz II]] into an alliance against Zober, king of neighboring [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]], subduing the kingdom and reducing it to a Roman protectorate.

With Armenia and the Caucasus secured, Antony marched south, crossing into the Parthian province of [[Media Atropatene]]. Though Antony desired a pitched battle, the Parthians would not engage, allowing Antony to march deep into Parthian territory by mid-August of 36 BC. This forced Antony to leave his logistics train in the care of two legions (approximately 10,000 soldiers), which was then attacked and completely destroyed by the Parthian army before Antony could rescue them. Though the Armenian King Artavasdes II and his cavalry were present during the massacre, they did not intervene. Despite the ambush, Antony continued the campaign. However, Antony was soon forced to retreat in mid-October after a failed two-month siege of the provincial capital.

The retreat soon proved a disaster as Antony's demoralized army faced increasing supply difficulties in the mountainous terrain during winter while constantly being harassed by the Parthian army. According to [[Plutarch]], eighteen battles were fought between the retreating Romans and the Parthians during the month-long march back to Armenia, with approximately 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry dying during the retreat alone. Once in Armenia, Antony quickly marched back to [[Roman Syria|Syria]] to protect his interests there by late 36 BC, losing an additional 8,000 soldiers along the way. In all, two-fifths of his original army (some 80,000 men) had died during his failed campaign.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Plutarch |title=Antony |pages=50.1}}</ref> The narration of Strabo and Plutarch blames the Armenian king for the defeat, but modern sources note Antony's poor management.<ref name="iranica-antony">{{cite web |last1=Chaumont |first1=M. L. |title=ANTONY, MARK |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/antony-mark-roman-gencral-ca |website=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |date=5 August 2011 |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026082247/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/antony-mark-roman-gencral-ca |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Antony and Cleopatra===
{{further|Early life of Cleopatra VII|Reign of Cleopatra VII}}
Meanwhile, in Rome, the triumvirate was no more. Octavian forced Lepidus to resign after the older triumvir attempted to take control of Sicily after the defeat of Sextus. Now in sole power, Octavian was occupied in wooing the aristocracy to his side. He married [[Livia]] and started to attack Antony. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in Rome with the children to be with the promiscuous queen of Egypt. Several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boatwright |first=Mary |title=The Romans From Village to Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0199735075 |location=New York |pages=269–271}}</ref>

[[Image:Donations of Alexandria 34BC.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A [[map]] of the ''[[Donations of Alexandria]]'' (by Mark Antony to Cleopatra and her children) in 34 BC.
{{legend|#81EE5B|Unallotted Roman territory}}{{legend|#27c600|Donations to Cleopatra's Children}}{{legend|#1a8000|Cleopatra's Original Kingdom}}]]

Again with Egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return, a mock [[Roman triumph]] was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city was a [[pastiche]] of Rome's most important military celebration. For the finale, the whole city was summoned to hear a very important political statement. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian.

He distributed kingdoms among his children: [[Alexander Helios]] was named king of [[Armenia]], [[Medes|Media]] and [[Parthia]] (territories which were not for the most part under the control of Rome), his twin [[Cleopatra Selene II|Cleopatra Selene]] got [[Cyrenaica]] and [[Libya]], and the young [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]] was awarded Syria and [[Cilicia]]. As for Cleopatra, she was proclaimed Queen of Kings and Queen of Egypt, to rule with [[Caesarion]] (Ptolemy XV Caesar, son of Cleopatra by Julius Caesar), King of Kings and King of Egypt. Most important of all, Caesarion was declared legitimate son and heir of Caesar. These proclamations were known as the ''[[Donations of Alexandria]]'' and caused a fatal breach in Antony's relations with Rome.

While the distribution of nations among Cleopatra's children was hardly a conciliatory gesture, it did not pose an immediate threat to Octavian's political position. Far more dangerous was the acknowledgment of Caesarion as legitimate and heir to Caesar's name. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through [[Adoption in Rome|adoption]], which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. To see this convenient situation attacked by a child borne by the richest woman in the world was something Octavian could not accept. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33&nbsp;BC and was not renewed. Another civil war was beginning.

During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony (in Egypt) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social upstart, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges: of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by [[Cleromancy|lots]], as was Rome's tradition, and of starting wars against foreign nations (Armenia and Parthia) without the consent of the senate.

Antony was also held responsible for [[Sextus Pompey]]'s execution without a trial. In 32 BC, the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra – not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome's internecine bloodshed. Octavian and other Roman Senators believed that turning the hostilities towards Cleopatra as the villain would gather the most support from Romans for war. Contributing to this would be the years of propaganda against Cleopatra published by the Romans, dating back to the days of Julius Caesar. Octavian, informed of Antony's will by two Antonian defectors, sacrilegiously raided the [[Temple of Vesta]] to secure it. The will, which some modern scholars have suggested was partially forged – largely on legal grounds – is never so described in the ancient sources. Octavian's publication of the will's provisions, which named Antony and Cleopatra's children as heirs and directed his burial in Alexandria, was used as a political weapon in Rome to declare war against Cleopatra and Egypt as a whole.<ref>Supporting authenticity: {{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=John Robert |date=1978 |title=The authenticity and validity of Antony's will |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41651325 |journal=L'Antiquité Classique |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=494–503 |doi=10.3406/antiq.1978.1908 |jstor=41651325 |issn=0770-2817 |access-date=13 January 2023 |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113185018/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41651325 |url-status=live }} Against authenticity: {{Cite journal |last=Sirianni |first=Frank A |date=1984 |title=Was Antony's will partially forged? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41657427 |journal=L'Antiquité Classique |volume=53 |pages=236–241 |doi=10.3406/antiq.1984.2126 |jstor=41657427 |issn=0770-2817 |access-date=13 January 2023 |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113185018/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41657427 |url-status=live }} Dio. 50.20.7.</ref> This was the perfect summation of their attacks on the woman Antony loved and they believed threatened their republic. Both consuls, [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]] (both Antony's men), and a third of the senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece.

[[Image:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|''The Battle of Actium'' (1672) by [[Laureys a Castro]] ([[National Maritime Museum]], London)]]
In 31&nbsp;BC, the war started. Octavian's general [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] captured the Greek city and naval port of [[Methoni, Messenia|Methone]], loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of Octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On 2 September, the naval [[Battle of Actium]] took place. Antony and Cleopatra's navy was overwhelmed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships.

===Death===
{{main|Death of Cleopatra}}
{{further|Epaphroditus (freedman of Augustus)|Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra}}
[[File:Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII.jpg|thumb|250px|This mid-1st-century-BC [[Pompeian Styles|Roman wall painting]] in [[Pompeii]], Italy, showing [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] holding a [[cupid]] is most likely a depiction of [[Cleopatra VII]] of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] as [[Venus Genetrix (sculpture)|Venus Genetrix]], with her son [[Caesarion]] as the cupid, similar in appearance to the now lost statue of Cleopatra erected by [[Julius Caesar]] in the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]] (within the [[Forum of Caesar]]). The owner of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of [[Augustus]] in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered [[Damnatio memoriae|a sensitive issue]] for the ruling regime.<ref>Roller (2010), 175.</ref><ref>Walker (2008), 35, 42–44.</ref>]]

Octavian, now close to absolute power, invaded Egypt with Agrippa in August of 30 BC. With no other refuge to escape to, Antony stabbed himself with his sword in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so. When he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, his friends brought him to Cleopatra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms.

Cleopatra was allowed to conduct Antony's burial rites after she had been captured by Octavian. Realising that she was destined for Octavian's [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, she made several attempts to take her life and finally succeeded in mid-August. Octavian had Caesarion and Antyllus killed, but he spared [[Iullus Antonius|Iullus]] as well as Antony's children by Cleopatra, who were paraded through the streets of Rome.